Browsing by Author "Hendriks, Sheryl Lee."

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Agricultural development and food security in post-conflict southern Sudan.
(2011) Kenyi, Michael Roberto.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.; Shimelis, Hussein Ali.
This study was set out to examine household food security in post- conflict Southern Sudan. Over the past four years the Government of Southern Sudan and Development Partners have shown increased interest in accelerating agricultural development and food security in the country. This study provides insight into the key factors responsible for food insecurity, the challenges faced and household coping strategies employed to reduce and manage risk, assure food supply, improve dietary diversity and take advantage of economic opportunities for sustainable livelihoods. The problem addressed by this study was whether cereal (sorghum, millet, maize and wheat) availability in three of the ten states of Southern Sudan improved in the five year post conflict period (2004-2008). The study explored if cereal grain production increased and how households coped with the unavailability of cereal grain. The researcher gathered data and information from multiple sources, including 542 household questionnaires and nine focus group discussion conducted between June and August 2009. Quantitative analysis supplemented the extensive qualitative data sources. The major challenges experienced by households with regard to food security were limited access to extension services, production inputs, processing, credit/saving facilities, training, market information and physical infrastructure. Evidence showed that food insecurity occurred due to the lack or absence of feeder roads, communication and transport facilities, strategic value chain alliances and partnerships; and limited exposure to communities for learning in Southern Sudan. The study concluded that the availability of cereals at the household level was generally low, although cereal production increased by small increments across the study areas after the conflict period. However, the increase in cereal production was inadequate to support the cereal needs of households, leading to food insecurity. The study identified the major factors responsible for food insecurity at the household level in the study areas as conflict, drought, floods and erratic rains. Poor infrastructure, weak policies and lack of access to services to improve farm production were among the key constraints reported by households. These factors were perceived by all stakeholders as root causes of inadequate food production in the study area. Household production provided 56.6 % of household food consumption, but this was inadequate to provide year-round. Other food sources included purchases, food aid and gifts. Households relied largely on consumption-based coping strategies when faced with food shortages including: relying on less preferred food, limiting meal portion sizes, mothers reducing their food to allow children to eat and reducing the number of meals eaten per day. These strategies are detrimental to the nutritional status of household members; considering that proper nutrition is critical for active and productive life. Therefore, food insecurity was high in the study areas and detrimental coping strategies were widely practiced, raising concerns of hunger and malnutrition. Food insecurity in Southern Sudan needs to be addressed urgently. Direct interventions to support a significant scaling up of food production (beyond only cereal production) are needed to alleviate hunger, prevent malnutrition and provide for future food security especially among resettling refugees and demobilized soldiers. In many cases food aid and direct transfers of food is urgently needed to address the situation, but this should be short-term and part of an integrated plan to boost production of food at community level. Programmes should be developed to assist households should establish food gardens, diversify cropping and undertake non-farm activities in improving food production and productivity. The local communities should participate in community-based food security needs assessment with strong support provided by the county agriculture department and state Ministries of Agriculture. This must lead to the identification of implementation measures and development of food security plans and budgets that include both increased production and market access. An inter-sectoral Food Security Council (FSC) and a framework for action should be developed to include strategic management of cereal grain reserves, establishment of an effective and and efficient public distribution system, harmonisation of relevant sector policies and development of a well coordinated food security information system. Longitudinal studies are recommended to monitor the food security situation in Southern Sudan and gain a deeper understanding of household coping strategies to inform policies and programmes. Further research is recommended to investigate how to increase the supply of food, promoting dietary diversification, improve access to economic opportunities and manage risk to help vulnerable households become more resilient to absorb shocks, stresses and threats.
Analysis of the local understanding of food insecurity and the socio-economic causes of food insecurity in Ward three of the Jozini Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal.
(2011) Nyakurimwa, Marvis.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.; Pillay, Kirthee.
Although food insecurity is a major problem in South African society, there is limited community level information on what constitutes it and related causative socio-economic factors. This study fills this information gap by analysing food insecurity in Ward 3 of Jozini Local Municipality in uMkhanyakude district in KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa. Specifically, the study explored the local understanding of food security and its socio-economic causes. A qualitative study was conducted using Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) techniques through a four-day workshop, supplemented with stakeholder interviews. The techniques used were historical timeline, seasonal calendar, focus group discussions, transect walk, problem tree analysis, social and resource mapping and semi-structured interviews. A four-day workshop was conducted with 44 participants that included traditional leadership, adult men and women, and young members of the community. The people of Ward 3 of Jozini Municipality regarded food insecurity as hunger that resulted in many socio-economic effects such as collapse of household unity and stability that enhanced erosion of dignity among household members. Hunger was commonly associated with “not eating enough”. Other effects of hunger included household heads, especially men resorting to alcohol and drug abuse as a way of escaping from indignity. The youth were said to be involved in crime, prostitution and alcohol abuse. As result of hunger, sick people defaulted from taking treatment against tuberculosis and Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS). Indicators of food secure households were access to funds, ownership of cattle, possession of arable land and access to water. Very irregular emissions of smoke from kitchens of food insecure households indicated that they had nothing to cook and eat. The people of Ward 3, Jozini revealed the choices made in the context of limited income to buy food. The choices included migration to urban areas in search of employment, women resorting to sex work, livelihoods activities such as gardening and craftwork. In the absence of an adult, many child headed households were said to be food insecure. The socio-economic factors causing food insecurity were poverty, the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and AIDS pandemic, unemployment, illiteracy, low household food production, limited access to resources such as water and land. The HIV and AIDS pandemic exacerbated food insecurity at household level. Furthermore, poverty forced women into sex work which places them at high risk of contracting HIV and spreading it to their multiple partners. In addition, as a coping mechanism men committed crime such as poaching of animals from game reserves which further expose them to loss of livelihoods and food security options. The socio-economic factors contributing to food insecurity were so intertwined such that an integrated approach is recommended as the best approach for solving the compounded problems. Further local population should be engaged to define solutions to the problems. To enhance self-reliance and self-drive among communities, adult basic education training should be incorporated to reduce the high illiteracy rate. The local leaders should be engaged to bring the large tracts of land owned by old people into full utilisation. The non-government, government and institutions working in the area should strengthen and diversify livelihoods to promote livelihoods sustainability and enable communities to survive shocks by reducing asset poverty.
Appropriate institutional and contractual arrangements for the marketing of organic crops produced by members of the Ezemvelo Farmers' Organisation in KwaZulu-Natal.
(2010) Gadzikwa, Lawrence.; Lyne, Michael Charles.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.
The Ezemvelo Farmers’ Organisation (EFO) is a certified organic smallholder group in KwaZulu-Natal province (South Africa) that exists as an institution to improve smallholder access to niche markets by reducing unit production and transaction costs. The study is motivated by the need to understand drivers of collective action, prevalence of internal group free-riding, and the impact of contract terms on contract performance. These three theoretical concepts are pertinent in understanding organisational and institutional issues affecting the performance of smallholder organic farming groups and in formulating policies to promote the performance of such groups. The study relies on the theoretical foundations of collective action, free-riding and contracts found within the realm of New Institutional Economics (NIE). These theories, though separate, are in fact related in certain respects. Collective action in smallholder groups, apart from being a function of a plethora of socio-economic factors, including transaction costs, could be constrained by free-riding within the group, which in turn could be influenced by flawed contractual arrangements. This study of collective action focuses on 200 farmers drawn from a sample survey of 49 non-EFO members, and a census survey of 103 partially certified and 48 fully certified EFO members. A ‘collective action’ model investigates the impact of perceived benefits and savings on production and transaction costs attributed to collective action by drawing comparisons between EFO members and non-members using a multinomial logit model. The study of free-riding uses data from 151 members of the EFO to construct an index of free-riding within the group using principal components analysis (PCA). A ‘contract model’, which also focuses on EFO members only, attempts to measure the impact of verbal contract provisions on contract performance in addition to evaluating the determinants of preferred contract terms using a combination of PCA, Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression, and logit models. Results indicate that continued participation in EFO is not influenced by the age or gender of the farmer, but positively influenced by growth in the net benefits of participation, and negatively by an increase in the size of the household’s cropland or on-farm earnings. With respect to production and transaction costs, the results suggest that EFO has reduced fully certified members’ concerns that crops would be damaged by livestock or constrained by inadequate technical information. However, this is not the case for other problems such as price uncertainty in conventional markets, a lack of affordable operating inputs, a lack of affordable transport, and a lack of communications infrastructure. The index of free-riding behaviour constructed using principal components analysis suggests that free-riding poses a serious threat to EFO’s collective marketing efforts. Ordinary Least Squares regression analysis of the index scores shows that members who are male, poorly educated, partially certified, aware of loopholes in the grading system, and who do not trust the buyer are more likely to free-ride. Benefits accruing to EFO members are limited and there is substantial confusion among members about the terms of EFO’s verbal contract with the pack house that purchases their organic produce. Ordinary Least Squares regression analysis of the impact that perceived contractual terms have on quantities delivered to the pack house yielded interesting findings. Perceptions that delivery calls are made by the buyer, that grading procedures are flawed and that prices are not jointly established were found to reduce quantities delivered to the pack house, after controlling for differences in farm and farmer characteristics. Logit models estimated to identify the determinants of preferred contract clauses indicate that farmers with higher levels of formal education and farm income, and lower levels of experience, favour a written contract over a verbal contract. Similarly, farmers with higher levels of formal education and lower levels of family farm labour favour a contract denominated by area rather than weight. It is concluded that EFO should recruit households that rely on farming for income and which are land constrained. EFO is more likely to survive if it continues to secure fully subsidised information, transport, fencing, and certification services for its members, and if it improves the benefits of participating by synchronising harvest and delivery dates, negotiating price discounts for organic inputs, and by maintaining an office with telephone, fax and postal services. In the longer-term, EFO should address institutionalised free-riding by issuing tradable ownership rights. In the short-term, EFO must engage with the pack house (buyer) to remove flaws in the grading process that conceal the origin of low quality produce. Transparent and mediated negotiations leading to an incentive compliant contract with the buyer may also help to build trust and reduce free-riding within EFO. It is also recommended that the terms of EFO’s contract with the pack house should be revised so that; (a) delivery calls can be made by either the pack house or by EFO during specified periods and with reasonable notice, and (b) grading procedures are fully transparent and ensure traceability so that losses caused by poor quality can be internalised to members who deliver inferior produce. In addition, it is important that prices be negotiated at the beginning of each season and that the contractual parties have recourse to pre-agreed facilitators and an arbitrator to resolve disputes on price and quality. A written contract is recommended to support these more complex terms, with the proviso that the contract is explained to current and prospective members, and that growers are fully informed of their rights and obligations.
Assessing the food security status of households participating in community gardens in the Maphephetheni uplands determined by the Household Food Security Access Scale.
(2007) Shisanya, Stephen Odede.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.
While South Africa is nationally food secure, the m ajority of rural households are food insecure. Community and home gardens are widel y promoted to alleviate food insecurity. Households in the Maphephetheni Uplands , KwaZulu-Natal have come together to cultivate community gardens, producing food crops for consumption and selling surpluses. This study evaluated the contrib ution of community gardens towards alleviating food insecurity in the Maphephe theni Uplands. A survey was conducted among 53 participants of community garden s and their households. A questionnaire and focus group discussions were used to evaluate the following household food security measures: anxiety and uncer tainty about food supply; consumption of a variety of preferred foods; consum ption of sufficient quantities of food; and the prevalence of food insecurity. Eighty percent of the participating households had insufficient food intake, 72% consum ed food of inadequate quality and 89% were anxious and uncertain about food suppl ies. Among the households surveyed using the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale, 88.7% were categorised as severely food insecure, often going a day withou t eating, going to bed hungry or running out of food for more than ten days in a mon th. Eight percent of households were moderately food secure, and three percent were mildly food insecure. No households were food secure according to the classi fication. Only 11% of the household food was sourced from community gardens, while 83% was purchased and six percent was sourced from home gardens. Limited community garden sizes, drought, floods, theft, pests and diseases were ide ntified by community gardeners as factors limiting the contribution of community gard ens to household food security. Community gardens have not alleviated food insecuri ty among the participating households. It is recommended that an investigation should be carried out on how productivity could be improved through appropriate crop husbandry practices to reduce crop loses. Since purchasing is the main sou rce of food among community gardeners, alternative income generating activities need to be investigated.
Can livelihood approaches adequately evaluate the determinants of food insecurity to inform interventions in Kenya?
(2012) Mutunga, Nancy Muthoni.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.; Ortmann, Gerald Friedel.
Food insecurity has remained pervasive for most Kenyan livelihoods despite the implementation of substantive interventions by the government and its development partners, since it gained independence in 1963. The inability to isolate distinct determinants of food insecurity for each livelihood group has led to interventions and solutions that have entrenched food insecurity rather than mitigate it. The key impediment to a livelihood-level analysis of food insecurity is the use of data and information collected at district-level administrative units, coupled with the absence of a robust analytical methodology. This study set out to identify determinants of food insecurity for three distinct livelihood groups in Kenya, namely the pastoral, agro-pastoral and marginal agricultural groups. The study also sought to empirically evaluate incremental impacts of identified determinants of food insecurity for each group. The outcomes were intended to inform the selection of particular indicators in order to target, monitor and identify important inter-relationships between variables for each livelihood group. Few studies have applied heterogeneous ordered logit regressions to livelihood-level data to evaluate food security determinants among livelihood groups and a comprehensive livelihood analysis of the determinants of food insecurity has not yet been undertaken in Kenya. Yet, Kenyan livelihoods are highly diverse, and livelihood characteristics transcend administrative boundaries. This study used a heterogeneous ordered logit to model determinants of food security in Kenya. The variables were: conflict, HIV/AIDS, rainfall, flooding, proximity to markets, migration patterns, food consumption sources, income contribution sources and own farm production. Results of significance tests and residual variability from the ordered logistic regression led to the identification of important determinants of food insecurity in each of the three livelihoods. The degree to which each of the variables was influential in accentuating food insecurity in each livelihood, was also evaluated. Determinants of food insecurity and their inter-relationships informed the selection of indicators for monitoring. Proximity to markets seemed to have a marked impact on food security in the pastoral, agropastoral and marginal agricultural livelihood groups. Conflict was influential in determining food insecurity, particularly for the pastoral and agro-pastoral livelihood groups. HIV/AIDS prevalence in the community was critical in determining food security status for the marginal agricultural and agro-pastoral livelihood groups. Rainfall was an important determinant of food insecurity in all the groups. Flooding had no significant impact on food insecurity. The results showed that an increase in the number of food sources improved food security in the pastoral, agro-pastoral and marginal agricultural livelihood groups. A diversity of income sources improved food security in the pastoral and agro-pastoral livelihood groups. The pastoral migration pattern seemed to have a substantial impact on food security especially in the pastoral and agro-pastoral livelihood groups. Own farm production was also influential in determining food security in both groups. The study outcome provides a basis for identification of important monitoring indicators including agro-climatic, trade and market processes, migration dynamics, income and food sources and the stability, settlement patterns, key livelihood and coping strategies in the three livelihood groups. The strong inter-relationships between variables suggest that multiple variables need to be monitored concurrently to address livelihood food insecurity in Kenya. The findings suggest that livelihood approaches are central to identifying determinants of food insecurity in Kenya. The outcomes of the study provide a basis for informing interventions intended to reverse food insecurity in Kenya for each distinct livelihood group. Further research could include an analysis of the impacts of seasonality, an in-depth analysis of the markets and their marked influence in affecting food security, and applications of similar methodologies to evaluate of the food insecurity of livelihood groups that were not covered in this study. Outcomes of this work are expected to provide a basis for formulating livelihood-specific interventions in Kenya. The results will provide a platform for further interrogation of important determinants of livelihood food insecurity by governments, researchers, and development partners. Aspects of the methodologies applied in this study can be replicated in adjacent countries with food security and livelihood characteristics similar to Kenya, such as Ethiopia and Somalia.
Can small-scale poultry production contribute to household food security in the Maphephetheni lowlands, KwaZulu-Natal?
(2009) Mosisi, Moleka Pange.; Tyler, Nicola Claire.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.
This study investigated the feasibility of small-scale poultry production to contribute to household food security in the Maphephetheni lowlands in KwaZulu-Natal. Forty households, selected by stratified random sampling (eight households per sub-ward) participated in a trial to assess the feasibility of egg and broiler production, from commercial lines, and the potential for generating income to improve household food security. The study established that participating households acquired the necessary skills through a training module offered, actively engaged in poultry production and marketing of the produce, and managed their funds well. Market demand for poultry products in the Maphephetheni lowlands was high from both local consumers and traders. Egg production profit was constrained as eggs were not sorted into sizes according to South African standards and local selling prices, but, contrary to commercial market practice, the eggs are graded ‘standard’ regardless of size. Both egg and broiler production are technically feasible in Maphephetheni lowlands, but broiler production is more economically viable than eggs and more highly desired by households. Households reported that poultry production could provide much needed income and reduce poverty and hunger in their community. Although household dietary diversity did not improve, income increased and was put into a savings account. Households borrowed and used this money for various needs, but not necessarily to supplement their diets. Commercial point-of-lay pullets and three-week old vaccinated broilers could be used in the Maphephetheni lowlands, but broilers were more commercially viable than point-of-lay pullets. It is recommended that broiler houses be established with the capacity for brooding each 500 day-old chicks which are sold (live) at six weeks. However, technical and financial support is required to maximise the benefits, increase household income, improve diets and reduce vulnerability to food insecurity.
Collective farming : elements constituting an effective agricultural co-operative, the case of three co-operatives in the Umgungundlovu district.
(2010) Dlamini, Thulile Rejoice.; Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.
Collective smallholder farming has been widely promoted as a vehicle for smallholder agricultural development in South Africa. As a result, agricultural co-operative registrations in South Africa are increasing. However, research suggests that South African co-operatives have generally not been effective, successful and functional. This study investigated the elements constituting an effective and functional primary agricultural co-operative among three smallholder agricultural co-operatives. It is expected that identification of these elements may enable institutions that offer support to co-operatives make better decisions to improve smallholder farming through primary agricultural co-operatives. Understanding of these elements could inform the efforts for members of co-operatives to achieve their set objectives and thus improve smallholder agriculture profitability. Three rural agricultural co-operatives in the Local Municipalities of Mooi-Mpofana, Mkhambathini, and Richmond in the Umgungundlovu District Municipality were purposively selected for the study because they were registered agricultural co-operatives. Inyamvubu Co-operative (from Mooi-Mpofana) was larger in membership, and well established compared to Umphumela (from Mkhambathini) and Ingwe-Mndeni (from Richmond). The sample included the purposively selected members and non-members of agricultural co-operatives to explore the differences and provide insight to the knowledge, opinions and perceptions of collective farming. A framework for analysing the effectiveness of agricultural co-operatives was developed using literature of objectives of agricultural co-operatives, success factors of smallholder agriculture and organisational effectiveness. This framework was used to analyse the effectiveness of the three co-operatives. Focus group discussions, Force Field Analysis and a survey were used for data collection. The study revealed that the three co-operatives have clearly defined group objectives aligned to those set out by the South African government. The main identified objectives of farming for the three co-operatives included; creation of employment and income generating activities, improving access to funding, strengthening market access and strengthening human and community development. Activities carried out by the three co-operatives took advantage of opportunities in the value chain including production, marketing, and transportation of produce to markets. However, farmers’ activities were hampered by a number of constraints. Production capability of the three co-operatives was hampered by resource constraints such as lack of access to land, machinery and equipment, finances and information relevant to production. Marketing, transportation and financial management capability of the three co-operatives was hampered by poor networking skills, poor infrastructure and low literacy levels. Management capability in the three co-operatives was challenged by complex group dynamics characterised by conflict of opinions and issues related to free-rider, horizon, and portfolio problems. Low capability of the three co-operatives to mobilise resources, use the limited resources available and low capability to manage institutional arrangements rendered the co-operatives ineffective in achieving their set objectives. The study recommends strategies for ensuring the effectiveness of agricultural co-operatives. These include strategies for addressing internal and external issues affecting the co-operatives. Direct intervention from government was recommended to improve production through revising land allocation systems, improving extension services and strict monitoring of effective use of government resources provided to farmers. Government should improve access and training to relevant technologies to improve the processing and packaging capabilities of co-operatives. Marketing and management activities should be supported through provision of improved infrastructure and relevant training. Farmers themselves should consider pooling resources for market rental of crop land, engage in value added activities, and develop informed marketing programs and cost-effective distributing mechanisms. Farmers should elect an effective board of members that will ensure enforcement of agreements and constitution.
The contribution of dairy credit guarantee scheme to household food security among the beneficiaries in Swaziland.
(2011) Nhleko, Nicholus Paul.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.; Baiyegunhi, Lloyd James Segun.; Shimelis, Hussein Ali.
More than 60% of the dairy products consumed in Swaziland are imported from South Africa. The Swaziland Dairy Board had established the dairy credit guarantee scheme with Swaziland Finance Development Cooperation to improve local dairy production and boost the livelihoods of smallholder dairy farmers. Unfortunately, the scheme was terminated without its effectiveness being evaluated. Therefore, the study set out to investigate the contribution of the dairy credit guarantee scheme to household food security. A total of 30 beneficiary households participated in the study. The data were collected through a structured questionnaire and analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 18.0). The households were compared in terms of the mean number of cows, milk production and volume of sales using the Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT). The dairy scheme was open to all qualifying smallholder dairy farmers, but most (86.7%) beneficiaries were male. The beneficiary households owned, on average, between one and eight cows between 2006 and 2009, and produced 188079 litres of milk on average per year. The highest income generated from milk sales was R74137.00 per year between 2006 and 2009. The lowest income from milk sales was R1020.00, from a household with the lowest number of dairy cows on average per year between 2006 and 2009. Beneficiaries reported that the increase in income enabled them to accumulate agricultural assets, increased food purchases and the diversification of livelihoods. Over 56.7% of the households were able to diversify their livelihoods by engaging in other income-generating projects such as poultry and pig production, horticulture, selling groceries and block (brick) making. With improved income especially milking households were able to increase food supply and this is indicated by their higher average Food Consumption Scores (75.58) than non-milking households (59.65). However, all the average Food Consumption Scores were above 42 which is a threshold level for acceptable nutrient intake, dietary diversity and this implies that the dairy production scheme led to improved dietary intake. In conclusion, the dairy credit scheme has the potential to improve local milk production and household food security. It is, therefore, recommended that the dairy scheme be revived, with better accessibility. The establishment of dairy development policy should be considered, in order to create a favourable environment for dairying and the promotion of cooperation among dairy development partners. This cooperation would help to avoid duplication of efforts among development partners and create a platform for interaction, sharing of information and exchange of ideas.
Determinants of participating in non-farm economic activities in rural Zanzibar.
(2011) Kassim, Mansura Mosi.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.; Zegeye, Edilegnaw Wale.
This study set out to examine the determinants of participation in non-farm economic activities by farming households in rural Zanzibar, using data from the Agriculture Census of 2003. The study goes beyond the traditional focus of non-farm studies that focus on analysing geographical and socio-economic variables on decisions to participate in non-farm activities and in so doing, fills an information gap and contributes to the understanding of determinants of farm household participation in non-farm activities in rural Zanzibar. The survey from which data were drawn, included surveys of 4755 household heads. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression model were applied to investigate the effect of individual characteristics on the decision to participate in non-farm economic activities. Gender, age, family size and level of education were used as variables to explain individual preference with regard to the decision to undertake non-farm economic activities. The analysis also included farm production factors including farm size, planted area and the main source of household income. The results show that gender, age, household size and income sources outside agriculture are the key factors that influence farming household’s decisions to participate in non-farm activities. Women and young farmers were more likely to participate in non-farm activities. Heads of larger households were also more likely to participate in non-farm activities, and undertake more than one activity in this sector. The type of activity engaged in also seems to have a positive influence on the decision to participate in the non-farm sector, with selling of agricultural products, fishing (including seaweed farming and selling of fish), wage employment and petty trade being more popular and attractive activities. Factors like education, landholding size and area of land planted were less important in influencing participation in non-farm activities. All sampled households participated in non-farm economic activities, with 70 per cent of the participants undertaking more than four activities simultaneously. This points to the importance of non-farm economic activities in providing opportunities to sustain household food security and increase the capacity for households to mitigate shocks. However, a strong relationship was found between participation in non-farm activities and the use of forest resources, as a significant number of activities depend on forest resources. The forest-based non-farm activities reported were: beekeeping, charcoal making and tree logging for poles, timber and firewood. This raises significant concern over the over-utilization of forest resources and subsequent sustainability of the related activities. It is recommended that efforts towards promoting non-farm economic activities should be directed towards developing non-farm activities that are not dependent on forest resources. Interventions enabling increased farm productivity or non-forest activities are important in ensuring food security in Zanzibar. More policy and programme attention should be given to the role of women in non-farm activities.
Determining the potential for smallholder organic production among three farming groups through the development of an empirical and participatory decision support tool.
(2008) Thamaga-Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.; Nsahlai, Ignatius Verla.; Copeland, Phillip.
Organic farming is increasingly viewed as a plausible production system for sustainable agriculture for smallholder farmers. However, there is not enough scientific evidence and knowledge to advocate certified organic farming for African smallholder farmers who face several constraints related to production, storage and marketing. The potential for organic farming for smallholder farmers, faced by these constraints, is not clearly defined. As a result, this study set out to evaluate the production potential of organic agriculture among three smallholder farmer groups. Production questions were used to investigate and evaluate the potential for organic agriculture among three smallholder farmer groups and constituted the following subproblems: · What crops can be grown in the three study areas, based on climatic data ? · Do farmers concur that these are the most suitable potential organic crops? · How useful do the farmers find the decision making tool? · What constraints threaten commercial production of the identified crops for these farmers? Participatory methodologies that included the use of Force Field Analysis, discussions and workshops were used to identify organic production constraints related to production decisions. Farmers faced constraints related to finance, capacity enhancement, technical knowledge, fencing, irrigation, and a lack of, or inappropriately trained extension officers. As a response to identified production constraints, a decision support tool was developed. Natural resource data, including climatic and agronomic data, was used to create a specially calibrated Microsoft Excel spreadsheet interface that functions as an empirical organic production decision support tool for organic and aspirant organic smallholder farmers, by providing answers for farmer-prioritised production constraints. A list of potential crops for each of the three study areas was subjected to a series of checks against suitability for climate and disease conditions and nutrient requirements. A limited supply of manure, to meet the enormously high requirements for organic production in the poor soils of these areas, is the major constraint to exclusive organic production and renders certified organic production difficult and unsustainable. Farmers disagreed with some of the crops on the list, arguing that familiar crops were rejected by the model, but they were excited by the prospects for production of “new” crops suggested as suitable by the decision support tool, but not yet grown in the study areas. End users welcomed the model and expressed the opinion that it would be useful in decision making related to organic crop production. The study concludes that, although a number of agronomically-suitable crops can grow in the study areas, organic production is restricted by rather high manure requirements, lack of compost making skills, lack of knowledge on natural pest and disease control and poorly nourished soils, leading to poor yields. The rainy season creates a disease-supporting environment, rendering organic farming risky for rain-fed smallholder farming. Risk in certified organic farming for smallholders was further exacerbated by a hardly inconducive policy environment that low literacy levels exist amongst farmers. This study is innovative for three reasons. First, farmers were true participants and drivers of the research. Second, trans-disciplinary expert seminars were attended by experts from different disciplines who critiqued the conceptualisation, design, and implementation of the study. Third, the development of a practical decision-support tool shows innovation towards solving complex smallholder farmers decisions. If organic farming is to be promoted, commitment by government is needed in order to establish policy and legislation on organic farming to direct and govern training, information provision and marketing. Intensive training and knowledge building of organic production for smallholder farmers and extension officers is critical. There are also agroecological risks associated with organic farming for smallholder farmers. Recommendations for future research include comparison between organic agriculture and conventional agriculture, where sustainability of certified organic farming and economic viability can be conducted in the South African context. Improvement of the decision making tool will require involving information technology specialists so that the tool can be installed in community centres, extension offices and other accessible places for farmers and others.
Do African country investment plans mitigate high food prices through improved household risk management? : a five-country comparative analysis.
(2012) Ngidi, Mjabuliseni Simon C.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.; Ortmann, Gerald Friedel.
Staple food prices rose sharply in 2007/2008, dropped slightly after July 2008, and rose again in 2010/2011. Since 2008, food prices have remained high, indicating a structural upward adjustment in food prices amidst excessive price volatility. The 2008 food price increases led to considerable media coverage and alarm among governments who implemented a variety of responses to protect their populations from food insecurity. At the start of the high food price crisis in May 2008, the African Union and New Partnership for Africa’s Development (AU/NEPAD) invited 16 African countries to a workshop in South Africa. The aim of the workshop was to assist selected African countries identify and formulate appropriate plans to mitigate food insecurity and manage rising food prices. This study set out to investigate whether the strategies implemented by national governments at the start of the crisis mitigated high food prices through improved risk management strategies in five African countries (Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda and Uganda) and evaluated these strategies to see if they were included in the national agriculture and food security investment plans. To achieve this, the study set out to explore four sub-problems, namely: What was the impact of high food prices on populations in the five selected countries (Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda and Uganda)? How did the five countries respond to the 2008 food price crisis with regard to providing for immediate needs and protecting vulnerable groups from food insecurity? How many early actions were included in country compacts and agriculture and food investment programmes? Do country investment plans include household risk management programmes that will protect vulnerable groups against high food prices in future? The involvement of the researcher in the AU/NEPAD workshop and his subsequent engagement with national government representatives provided a unique opportunity to analyse the iterative process of Country Investment Plan (CIP) development. This innovative and largely qualitative study integrated comparative, content and thematic analysis approaches, using the four elements of the Comprehensive Africa Agricultural Development Programme’s (CAADP) Framework for African Food Security (FAFS) to analyse the national plans. The study drew on available data from a wide variety of national, regional and international documents. Additional data were collected through a survey questionnaire completed by CAADP country focal persons. Data sourced from documents included Food Price Indices, country policy responses to high food prices, poverty and malnutrition indicators and the types of risk management strategies designed under CAADP. The study found that food prices increased across all five countries between 2007 and 2008, although the effects of the increases varied, being influenced by, among other factors, the proportion of national stocks purchased on the international market (i.e. net importers of staple crops), the availability of substitute staples on the domestic market and the magnitude of the difference between international and domestic market prices. The 2008 food price increases forced populations to spend a higher proportion of their income on food and eroded their purchasing power, impacting on the food security of these populations. Poor people adopted eroding consumption strategies that increased food insecurity. The impact of the high food prices on populations was determined by whether they were net food buyers or producers, the mix of staple commodities in their food basket and the proportion of income spent on food. As poor net food importing countries, imported staple foods became too costly, except in Uganda - a net exporter of food staples consumed in the surrounding countries. High food prices also provoked social unrest in Ethiopia and exacerbated political and economic instability in Kenya. Countries’ early responses to the food price crisis were varied and included responses that can be classified into three main categories, namely: Trade-oriented responses protected domestic stocks, reduced tariffs, restricted exports to reduce prices for consumers or increased domestic supply Consumer-oriented responses provided direct support to consumers and vulnerable groups in the form of, among others, food subsidies, social safety nets, tax reductions and price controls Producer-oriented responses provided incentives for farmers to increase production - using measures such as input subsidies and producer price support. Most responses were aimed at managing prices, suggesting that governments tried to protect citizens from price increases and buffer consumption reduction. Safety net programmes mitigated risks through the provision of food for immediate consumption. As a result, malnutrition levels unexpectedly decreased or remained static in these five countries, despite expectations and media claims that the number of hungry people would increase significantly. The early actions from the food price workshop plans were generally systematically translated into long-term programmes in the Compacts and Country Investment Plans. In Ethiopia, seven of eight early action plans were translated into the CIP, Kenya included three of eight, Malawi’s CIP included four of ten, and Rwanda included six of its ten early actions in their CIP programme, while Uganda included only six of thirteen early actions in their CIP. The study found that CIPs included risk management strategies, but these focused predominantly on improving early warning systems and crisis prevention. The risk management options largely included options for improving crisis prevention, followed by improving emergency responses and strengthening risk management policies and institutions. Only Kenya’s CIP included more risk management options for improving emergency responses – four of six risk management programmes. Despite expectations that programmes developed under CAADP FAFS would include all FAFS elements, CIPs lacked programmes to improve dietary quality. Only Rwanda’s CIP included nutrition programmes - three of six programmes in their CIP. The study concluded that while the proposed risk management strategies could mitigate risks associated with high food prices and offer some buffer for populations from food insecurity, the programmes are not comprehensive. The plans were generally weak regarding improving dietary quality through diversification of food consumption and production. Although the CIPs included risk management strategies, these strategies would not address risks in a comprehensive manner. More effective and coherent actions are still required to help the most food insecure populations cope with increasing high food prices and future price shocks; help developing country farmers respond to the opportunities offered by the rising demand for their products; and bring more stability in prices. The early food price response workshop seems to have influenced the development of programmes in the CAADP compact and CIPs, despite the fact that the workshop did not intend to assist countries with the development of comprehensive national investment plans. The large funding gaps in the CIPs constrain implementation of essential mitigation and development strategies and could leave countries vulnerable to the negative impacts of higher prices for consumers and threaten future household food security. The study recommends that countries invest in agriculture-led growth to boost domestic production and strengthen institutional capacities regarding national food stock reserves to reduce their dependency on imports and ensure food insecurity. National monitoring and evaluation systems need to be strengthened to evaluate and monitor the implementation of CIPs and to warn about future high food prices. Empirical estimation of the impact of price increases on households across all CAADP countries is needed to understand and monitor the impact of price changes and interventions.
Do household coping strategies mitigate perceived household food insecurity among sample households in Dasse administrative area, Gash-Barka zone, Eritrea?
(2009) Beraki, Yergalem.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.
This mini-dissertation sets out to examine the perceptions of farmers in the Dasse Administrative Area of Gash-Barka zone of the impact of agro-ecological, socioeconomic and infrastructural constraints on food insecurity, and the coping strategies employed by 101 sampled farm households in order to understand how these strategies increase vulnerability or mitigate the effect of food shortages. Agricultural productivity was low and average cereal production provided only 39 per cent of annual household requirements. Self-sufficiency in grain obtained from own production sustained households for only four months a year. In line with this, the study examined the impact of agro-ecological, socio-economic, and infrastructural constraints to the problem of food insecurity as perceived by the farmers. Farmers perceived drought, erratic rainfall, and weed infestations as major agro-ecological constraints that hindered self-sufficiency in food production. Shortage of draught animals and labour and lack of cash and off-farm income, were most conceived socio-economic constraints that affected production. Lack of farm credit, health problem (malaria), and inadequate farmers advisory service were most perceived infrastructural constraints that affected production and household food security. This shows that food security interventions need to be built around mitigating these perceived causes. The study also investigated coping strategies and their impact on increasing vulnerability or mitigating the effect of food shortages. The coping strategies applied by the studied households were largely consumption-based and non-erosive, indicating that households were relatively resilient to food security shocks. However, these strategies could be detrimental to the nutritional well being of household members, as they determined dietary intake. These coping strategies were particularly detrimental to household food security, as proper nutrition is critical for active and productive life. Thus, health and nutrition related interventions are highly required to address these problems. Food security interventions need to support livelihoods in ways that protect and buffer the natural resilience of households, providing direct assistance when erosive coping strategies are employed to ensure that households remain resilient to the fragile and variable situations in which they exist.
Does sequential harvesting affect the quality of and income from organically grown potatoes?
(2009) Katundu, Mangani George Chilala.; Siwela, Muthulisi.; Bower, John Patrick.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.
Lack of effective storage facilities to mitigate post harvest losses threatens the profitability of organic farming. In rural KwaZulu-Natal, small scale farmers use traditional storage and sequential harvesting to keep potatoes post maturity while waiting to sell. The effect of these practices on potato quality has not been studied and documented. This study set out to investigate if traditional practices (sequential harvesting and traditional farmer’s store) of the Ezemvelo Farmers Organisation in Umbumbulu affect the quality and marketable quantity of organically grown potatoes. Specifically the study set to investigate the effect of traditional farmer’s store, in situ and controlled storage on the carbohydrate content and sensory quality of potatoes organically grown in Embo by EFO farmers; determine consumer quality expectations of organically and conventionally grown potatoes; investigate the effect of sequential harvesting on the potato quality expectations of consumers and to investigate the produce and income losses experienced by small scale organic farmers at harvest and during storage. Experiments were conducted to compare the effect of sequential harvesting, farmer’s store and controlled cold storage (7oC and 90% relative humidity) on the sensory, appearance and keeping quality of organically grown potatoes. A survey of 100 consumers (40 organic and 60 conventional consumers) was conducted to ascertain consumer appearance and keeping quality expectations of potatoes. In addition, a survey of 101 farmers investigated the storage practices of the EFO farmers who grew potatoes and the type of losses incurred in storage. Preference ranking was used to investigate if time of harvesting post maturity affected potato quality. Produce losses experienced by the farmers were quantified. A co-research group of three seasoned farmers of the EFO participated in the research. They produced potatoes used in the study and provided valuable input to ensure that the study adhered to storage practices of the farmers. The lowest and highest sugar levels were observed in potatoes stored in situ and under controlled conditions, respectively. Potatoes left in situ also recorded higher starch content. Potatoes stored in situ were significantly preferred by sensory panellists (p<0.05) over those stored in both farmer’s store and in controlled storage. Preference rank scores were negatively correlated to total sugar content and positively correlated to starch content. Consumers in the study highlighted five desirable appearance qualities in potatoes: absence of greening, absence of sprouting, smooth skin texture, absence of blemishes and light skin colour. No significant differences in the quality expectations between participating organic and conventional potato consumers were found. The majority of consumers expected potatoes to store for at least three weeks post purchase. Sequentially harvested potatoes met this expectation when potatoes were left in situ for a maximum of six weeks post maturity. Potatoes in situ also maintained good appearance and sensory quality. The highest produce losses were experienced in summer owing to soft rot problems. Production in the drier seasons (autumn and winter) increased the proportions of potatoes too small to be sold as table potatoes. With the exception of completely rotten potatoes, poor quality potatoes were consumed, used as seed potatoes and sold to the local market as seed and for food. Poor potato quality resulted in reduced income for the farmers. This investigation pioneered research into the effect of sequential harvesting on the quality of organically grown potatoes. The findings demonstrate that sequential harvesting provides resource-poor small scale organic farmers with an efficient storage option where other storage methods and technologies may be inappropriate, ineffective or unaffordable. It is recommended that government and other players in the agricultural sector plan initiatives to educate small scale potato farmers on the benefits of sequential harvesting as an effective short term method of potato storage. Research with other potato cultivars in different agro-ecological settings is needed to optimise sequential harvesting. Government policy aimed at training and developing farmer capacity in organic seed potatoes production is essential to ensure that farmers access disease and pest free seed. Farmers also need assistance to access to irrigation resources to improve production.
Evaluation of solar-powered computer use by educators at Myeka High School, rural KwaZulu-Natal.
(2002) Dube, Nurse Bongi.; Green, Jannette Maryann.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.
The potential of solar systems to generate electricity to power computers in rural schools has been realised in areas where grid electricity is inaccessible. While donors may willingly donate computers to rural schools, the extent of their use is questionable. The purpose of this study was to investigate the extent to which Myeka High School educators used solar-powered computers and to determine factors affecting computer use. Myeka High School is located in the rural KwaZulu-Natal midlands, in the Ndwedwe district. It is characterised by a lack of grid electricity and basic infrastructure. Through private funding this school was provided with 20 solar-powered computers. A combination of survey questionnaires, observations, informal interviews and focus group discussions was used to collect data from 25 school staff, after computer training and Internet Explorer program access at the school. Data collected included educators' computer skills level, type of software used, time spent using computers and factors affecting computer use at the school. Survey results showed that the majority of educators were computer literate and used word processing more frequently than other software programs, but spent a relatively short duration of time using computers. The computers' capacity to enhance educators' tasks was the main motivation for them to use computers. However, low human capacity, high computer maintenance costs and poor physical infrastructure constrained educators' computer use. Recommendations are that interventions aimed at promoting computer use by rural educators should first develop human capacity and improve the infrastructure for using and maintaining computers. Implications for further research are to get learners' perspectives on computer use and to conduct a comparative study between Solar-powered computer and grid electricity-powered computers in schools, to further understand factors limiting computer use.
Evaluation of the impact of a household food security programme in QwaQwa using a coping strategy index.
(2005) Majake, Mosela Paulina.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.
The Free State Department of Agriculture distributed food security packages to Qwaqwa households in 2003. The purpose of distributing food security packages was to improve the food security status of poor households. Thirty households received food security packages to the value of R4500.00 each between March and May 2003. The packages were designed to include: garden fencing materials, gardening tools, winter and summer seeds, fertiliser, water hoses, twenty village chickens, chicken feed and a portable, ready made poultry cage. This study sets out to evaluate the impact of these packages distributed by the Department of Agriculture to Qwaqwa households by comparing dietary diversity, frequency of consumption, income sources, coping strategy applications and food security status. Maxwell et al 's (2003) Coping Strategy Index (CSI) was used to determine relative food security status. Data on household demographics, food consumption patterns and consumption coping strategies was collected from 30 recipient households and 30 non-recipient households whose names were on the waiting list for food security packages in Qwaqwa. The results of the study showed that the packages improved food security in recipient households. First, the frequency of consumption of most foods included in packages (carrot, beetroot, eggs as by-product of chicken and chicken) was higher among recipient households. Food consumption patterns improved in recipient households as more households diversified food intake. Second, some coping strategies applied by recipient and non-recipient households were similar, but the frequency of application of these strategies differed between households in the two groups. The frequency of application of similar strategies (eating less preferred food, purchasing food on credit, visiting friends to eat with them, restricting consumption of adults in order for small children to eat, borrowing food, sending children to visit relatives, skipping entire meal eaten in a day, reducing meal sizes, and sending household members to beg) was higher in non-recipient households. The classification of strategies according to severity levels (least severe, moderately severe, severe and very severe) was done by community members. Recipient households applied the least severe strategies and moderately severe coping strategies more than non-recipient households. Non-recipient households applied more severe and very severe strategies more often than recipient households. As a result, recipient households' average coping strategy index score was lower than that of the non-recipient households, suggesting that food security packages improved recipient households' food security status. Lack of suitable scavenging space for the chickens and lack of knowledge of freely available chicken feed constrained the impact of the packages on household food security. Recommendations include training of extension officers and households in village chicken rearing and harvesting of chicken feed. It is recommended that the Department of Agriculture should adhere to its original plan of giving twenty-month old chicken to households and should use the Coping Strategy Index for identifying food insecure households and monitoring and evaluation of the impact of the food security programme.
An evaluation of the perceived benefits and constraints of community gardens established by the KwaZulu-Natal Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs.
(2008) Mpanza, Thamsanqa Philangenkosi.; De Villiers, Johannes Frederick.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.
This study provides feedback from the Extension Officers and community garden members involved in community garden projects of the KwaZulu-Natal Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs, by investigating the contribution of community gardens to household food security. The investigation included interviews with 61 Extension Officers from the Bergville, Hlanganani, Eshowe, Vryheid and Mbumbulu districts and 106 community garden members from 31 community gardens in the Bergville and Hlanganani districts. It was found that the people involved in community gardens were older persons, with little or no education. Those involved in community gardens were unemployed and relied on pensions, remittances and selling handicrafts to purchase garden inputs. The average household dependency ratios were 4, 5 and 5, 5 persons per active household member in Hlanganani and Bergville, respectively. Community garden members were mostly females, but most community garden members’ households were male-headed. The community garden members indicated that the most important reason for producing vegetables was for household use. Extension Officers were not satisfied with the state of community gardens and the relationship between the regional and district offices. Community gardens do not reflect the effort put in by the Extension Officers. The Extension Officers want to be involved in determining research priorities and be regularly informed about research findings and policy changes made at the regional level. The Extension Officers would like to see all government departments working together towards the development of communities. Extension Officers believe that if the government departments pool their resources, they would be able to serve the communities better than when each department works alone on community garden projects in the same community. Despite the initial funding of community gardens by the KwaZulu-Natal Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs, there were many factors limiting production of vegetables in community gardens. The limiting factors included poor soil fertility; small garden plot sizes; low water availability; high start-up costs and poor management of the community garden finances. The community garden members were positive about the contribution of community gardens to their lives. The benefits were in the form of information about vegetable production, cropping practices and the availability of fresh vegetables that provided nutritious food and allowed them to buy other household requirements instead of vegetables. Community garden projects have a potential role to play in the lives of many rural people if the following concerns raised by the Extension Officers are addressed: the relationship between the offices at district level and the regional level improves; the establishment and maintenance of sound channels of communication between the district field staff and the regions; research support is received from the regions; and government departments work together. The KwaZulu-Natal Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs should not only focus on providing infrastructure for projects but should also ascertain that the proposed project achieves the objectives of both the community garden members and the Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs and that the beneficiaries are trained before the project is handed over.
Expenditure elasticities and growth linkages for rural households in two study areas of KwaZulu-Natal.
(2002) Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.; Lyne, Michael Charles.
Expenditure patterns were investigated to determine the potential impact of a widespread income shock on household expenditure and to estimate the potential for growth linkages to spur agriculture-led growth in two communal areas of KwaZulu-Natal. Expenditure data were collected from 99 sample households at the rural areas of Swayimana and Umzumbe during 1997. District and wealth group expenditure analyses for commodity groups suggested expenditure elasticities of close to unity for food. Low expenditure elasticities were found for staple foods. Expenditure elasticities for meat, meat products, and poultry were close to unity, while horticultural products showed the greatest potential for demand growth within the food category. Of the statistically significant commodity categories, expenditure elasticities for durables, housing, and transport were more than double those estimated for the aggregate food category. There was little difference in the response of wealthier households (the top expenditure decile) and that of poorer households. However, wealthier households have a greater propensity for increased expenditure on transport, while poorer households show a greater propensity for increased expenditure on housing and durables. District and wealth group expenditure analyses for tradable versus non-tradable farm and non-farm goods and services suggest a less than proportional increase in the demand for tradable farm commodities, and a more than proportional increase in demand for non-tradable farm commodities, following a one percent increase in household expenditure. Expenditure on non-farm tradables (imported consumer durables) showed the greatest potential for demand growth, with expenditure elasticities ranging from 1.75 to 2.59. A one Rand increase in household income is predicted to add an additional 28 cents (multiplier of 1.28) to the local economy. However, even relatively weak growth linkages could lead to much needed new income and , employment opportunities within the local farm and non-farm sectors if the constraints inhibiting agriculture, and hence broad-based growth in rural incomes are alleviated. Agriculture-led growth in South Africa requires public investment in both physical and institutional infrastructure to reduce transaction costs and risks in all markets, encouraging greater participation by local entrepreneurs and private sector investors. In addition, the roles, functions and services offered by extension agents should be extended to promote collective marketing, facilitate land rental contracts, provide training, and technical and business support for farm and non-farm entrepreneurs.
The extent of Aflatoxin and Aspergillus section Flavi, Penicillium spp. and Rhizopus spp. contamination of peanuts from households in western Kenya and the causative factors of contamination.
(2010) Mutegi, Charity Kawira.; Ngugi, Henry.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.
Peanuts contribute significantly to food security in western Kenya due to their high nutritional value and cash crop potential. However, the crop is highly susceptible to aflatoxin contamination. Yet little information is available on the extent of contamination in the region. This study explores the level and extent of contamination of peanuts by aflatoxins, Aspergillus section Flavi, Rhizopus and Penicillium spp. in western Kenya. A survey of 769 households was carried out in the Busia and Homa bay districts of Kenya. Information on peanut pre- and post-harvest practices was collected through person-to-person interviews. Aflatoxin levels of samples collected from each household were determined by indirect competitive ELISA method. Isolation of Aspergillus section Flavi, Penicillium and Rhizopus spp. was done on Modified Dichloran Rose Bengal (MDRB) agar, while identification of specific fungal species was done on Czapek yeast extract agar (CYA). Screening isolates of A. flavus and A. parasiticus for aflatoxin production was done in high sucrose yeast extract (YES) liquid medium, and the aflatoxin types identified on TLC plates, using analytical grades of aflatoxin B1, B2, G1 and G2 as reference standards. Common household preparation techniques (roasting, making peanut paste and boiling peanuts) were evaluated for effectiveness in reducing aflatoxin levels in peanuts. The boiling procedure was modified to test the effect of magadi (locally available salt used mainly to soften legumes, vegetables or maize while cooking), ammonium persulphate and sodium hypochlorite during soaking. Magadi, sodium bicarbonate and locally prepared ash was subsequently used to boil the nuts after soaking. Aflatoxin levels ranged from zero to 7525 ìg/kg. Most samples were safe to consume, based on the European Union and Kenya Bureau of Standards tolerance levels, with 63.7 per cent of all samples having undetectable levels, and only 7.54 per cent being contaminated based on KEBS standards. Peanuts from the Busia district, which has more of Lower Midland 1 (mean annual rainfall of 1600-1800 mm) and Lower Midland 2 (mean annual rainfall of 1300-1700 mm) agro-ecological zones had significantly (÷2=14.172; P=0.0002) higher levels of aflatoxin compared to the Homa bay district, that has more of the drier Lower Midland 3 agroecological zone (mean annual rainfall of 900-1500mm). Improved cultivars had significantly (÷2=9.748; P=0.0018) lower levels of aflatoxin compared to local cultivars. Over 60 per cent of all samples had A. flavus S-strain, A. flavus L-strain and A. niger. A. flavus S-strain was positively correlated with aflatoxin levels. As expected, grading of peanuts post-harvest significantly reduced the incidence of A. flavus S- and L-strains, while peanuts collected from farmers who belonged to producer marketing groups had a significantly lower incidence of A. flavus S- and L-strains, A. niger and Rhizopus spp. The incidence of A. flavus L-strain, A. niger and Rhizopus spp. was significantly higher in local landraces compared to the improved cultivars. Over 60 per cent of isolates produced Aflatoxin B1. Intermediate processes such as sorting and dehusking led to a significant decline in levels of aflatoxin. Soaking peanuts in water, magadi, NaOCl and ammonium persulphate significantly reduced aflatoxin levels by 27.7, 18.4, 18.3 and 1.6 per cent respectively; while boiling the peanuts in magadi, local ash, baking powder and water reduced aflatoxin levels by 43.8, 41.8, 28.9 and 11.7 per cent respectively. Using magadi during boiling increased the acceptability of the boiled peanuts while reducing the aflatoxin levels. The impact of aflatoxin levels in peanuts studied in this research is within safe limits except a few samples, and therefore aflatoxin contamination of peanuts at household level is not a serious threat. Contamination by aflatoxin and post-harvest fungi can be reduced by focusing on improved control strategies for wetter and more humid zones such as planting improved peanut cultivars and controlling pre-harvest pest damage. Conventional household peanut preparation techniques should be explored as possible aflatoxin management strategies in Kenya. The aflatoxin binding properties of locally available salts such as magadi and locally prepared ash should be further investigated.
Food quality and safety of solar dried fruits and vegetables in the Butha-Buthe district, Lesotho.
(2005) Miricho, Esther W.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.
This study investigated the quality and safety of solar dried fruits and vegetables produced by households in three locations in the Butha-Buthe district of Lesotho from November 2002 to March 2003. The aim of the study was to enhance year round availability of fruits and vegetables and reduce post-harvest losses, contributing to increased food availability and accessibility in the district. The study analysed the quality and safety of dried fruits and vegetables by assessing the processing techniques applied by the respondents during the production of dried fruits and vegetables, analysing the quality of dried fruits and vegetable samples produced by the study respondents using Appropriate Technology Section (ATS) solar driers, and by identifying the constraints that hamper the improvement of quality and safety of solar dried fruits and vegetables in the study area. Data was collected through focus group discussions, interviews, and laboratory food quality analysis of dried fruit and vegetable samples provided by the respondents. The dried fruits and vegetables produced by the respondents were of low quality due to poor processing techniques and unhygienic practices that increased chances of contamination and deterioration during processing and storage. Lack of processing skills and information, particularly on quality and safety standards, and weak extension support contributed to poor product. For the respondents to improve the quality and safety of dried fruits and vegetables, they need training and support with respect to quality and safety that includes training on the importance of food safety, best processing and storage practices and marketing of dried produce.
The impact of home gardens on dietary diversity, nutrient intake and nutritional status of pre-school children in a home garden project in Eatonside, the Vaal triangle, Johannesburg, South Africa.
(2010) Selepe, Bolyn Mosa.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.
Urban agriculture is a strategy poor urban, informal settlement residents adopt to reduce poverty and improve food security and child nutrition. It is widely asserted in the literature and development circles that household vegetable gardens can provide a significant percentage of recommended dietary allowances of macro- and micro-nutrients in the diets of pre-school children. These children are vulnerable in terms of food access and nutrition. The first five years of a child’s life are crucial to psychological well-being. This study set out to determine the impact of home gardens on access to food, dietary diversity and nutrient intake of pre-school children in an informal settlement in Eatonside, in the Vaal Region, Johannesburg, South Africa. The home gardening project was undertaken in five phases, namely the planning phase; a baseline survey (including quantitative food intake frequencies, 24-hour recall, individual dietary diversity questionnaires and anthropometric measurements); a training programme on home gardens; planting and tending the gardens and evaluating the impact of home gardens on access to food, dietary diversity and nutrient intake of pre-school children. Children aged two to five years (n=40) were selected to participate in the study. The sample population consisted of 22 boys and 18 girls. The children were categorised into three groups at the start of the project: children of 24-35 months (four boys and one girl), 36-47 months (four boys and five girls) and 48-60 months (14 boys and 12 girls). All but 10 per cent of the children’s consumption of foods in the food groups increased. At the start of the project, low consumption rates were observed for white tubers and roots, vitamin A-rich fruit, other fruit and fish. After the gardening project, the number of children consuming vegetables increased considerably. There was an increase in the intake of food groups over the period of the project. The number of children consuming vitamin A-rich increased the most, with all children (45 per cent improvement) consuming vitamin A-rich vegetables at the end of the project, compared with just over half at the start of the project. The consumption of vegetables increased with 78 per cent of the children consuming beans and 33 per cent beetroot. Most children (95 per cent) consumed cabbage, carrots and spinach post-home gardening. Seventy eight percent of children consumed beans by the end of the project, but only a third of the children had consumed beetroot during the post-project survey period. Intakes of all nutrients considered in the study improved by the end of the project, except for energy and calcium, which dropped marginally, but both remained at around 50 per cent below requirements. Twenty five percent of boys (24-35 months) were underweight and below the 50th percentile at the pre- and post-project stages. The same boys were severely stunted (on average -4.41 standard deviations below the third percentile). Of the boys aged 36-47 months, 25 per cent were stunted pre-project, but by the end of the project, this number had decreased to 50 per cent. Twenty one per cent of the older boys (48-60 months) were within their normal height for age. Twenty five per cent of girls were underweight (36-47 months). A slight change was observed in the 36-47 month group, where the mean changed from -0.14 standard deviations (below 50th percentile) pre-project to -0.5 (below 50th percentile) post-project. All girls aged 24-35 months were below -2 standard deviations pre-project. After the home gardening project, the figure dropped to 50 per cent. For girls aged 36-47 months, 25 per cent were below -3 standard deviations after the project, compared with 20 per cent pre-project. Height-for- age for girls aged 36-47 months dropped by 10 per cent below -2 standard deviation post-home gardening. Girls from 24 to 35 months were severely stunted [-3.02 (below 3rd percentile) pre- and -2.31 (below 5th percentile) post-project]. Stunting was observed in 36-47 months girls who had means of -2.39 (below 3rd percentile) and 1.86 (below 25th percentile) both pre-and post-gardening respectively and were at risk of malnutrition. The older girls were well nourished with means of height-for-age at -0.88 (below 50th percentile) pre-project and -0.92 (below 50th percentile) post-project. Home-gardening improved food access, dietary diversity, energy, protein, carbohydrate, fat, fibre, vitamin A and iron intakes, but did not make a significant impact on the malnutrition of the children in the project or ensure adequate intakes. Home gardens had a positive impact on height-for-age scores; but had no significant impact on mean weight-for-age and height-for-weight z-scores of the pre-school children. Increases in carbohydrate and fat intakes were shown to have the only significant impact on the children’s nutritional status and only with regard to improving height-for-age scores. The results show that the gardens did not have the expected impact on children’s nutrition, but confirm that increases in incomes from gardening are likely to have a greater impact through savings from consuming produce grown and selling produce to buy energy-dense foods for the children. This needs to be considered in nutrition interventions.