Masters Degrees (Food Security)

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The impact of food aid on maize production in Swaziland.
(2007) Mabuza, Majola Lawrence.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.; Ortmann, Gerald Friedel.; Sithole, Moses M.
The objective of the study was to provide empirical evidence on whether food aid leads to depressed domestic maize prices and reduced maize production in subsequent years in Swaziland. Similar impact studies have been carried out in a number of sub-Saharan African countries but no evidence is available for Swaziland. The lack of empirical evidence has often resulted in premature negative conclusions on the impact of food aid on Swaziland’s maize industry. The study used secondary national data from 1985 to 2006 to analyse the impact of food aid on maize producer prices and quantity of maize produced. Variables used in the analysis included quantity of cereal food aid; quantity of commercial maize imports; quantity of locally produced maize; official maize producer price; open market maize producer price; fertilizer price; fuel price; rainfall; and total area planted to maize. The impact of food aid was measured using the reduced form market equilibrium model that consisted of maize quantity and maize producer price functions estimated simultaneously using the above variables through the two-stage least square method (2SLS) method. Analytical results revealed that food aid to Swaziland does not lower prices of domestic maize and has no significant negative effect on the quantity of maize produced in subsequent seasons. This means that food aid received by Swaziland over the study years has been appropriately targeted and distributed to the food insecure households. If this were not so, the demand for food from commercial outlets would have been reduced, leading to an adverse impact on maize producer prices, and subsequent local maize production. Notwithstanding the above results, Swaziland should still commit resources towards reducing the national food gap. This calls for increased investment in rural irrigation development, improved farmer institutional support services, and the implementation of pro-poor development programs aimed at improving individual household income to reduce the need for food aid, improve food self-sufficiency and vulnerability to food security.
The practice, constraints and perceptions of improving soil quality through manure application : a case study of three smallholder farmer groups.
(2009) Naidoo, K. D.; Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.
Land degradation and soil nutrient depletion have become serious threats to agricultural productivity in sub-Saharan Africa. Soil fertility depletion in smallholder areas has been cited as the fundamental biophysical cause of declining per-capita food production in Africa. Manure application is a well established and known practice, but not effectively used among South African smallholders. This study investigated the practice, constraints and perceptions of improving soil quality through manure application through a case study of three smallholder farmer groups. Three groups from rural areas of KwaZulu-Natal (Mkhambatini, Mooi River and Richmond) were selected to participate in the study. Participatory methodologies were used to identify and clarify the study problem. Three participatory focus group discussions, one per area, were conducted with farmers at the study sites to discuss farming methods, experience and perceptions of manure use, manure management practices and constraints farmers experience with manure use. Force Field Analysis was used for each group to explore for forces against and in support for manure use. Random soil and manure samples were collected for laboratory analysis to determine fertility levels. Some farmers indicated that soil fertility was low. However, half the sample perceived the land to be productive to some extent. The study showed that 40 per cent of farmers reported improved soil fertility following the application of manure. Due to the limited availability of livestock manure, farmers prefer to use both livestock manure and commercial fertilisers. Furthermore, the study found that except for young farmers (20 per cent of the sample), farmers had not received formal training and very limited extension advice on composting and manure use and management. The study participants were aware of the consequences of declining soil fertility and were attempting to improve soil quality. However, low livestock numbers and poor management led to inadequate amounts of manure, and, limited access to information on manure and compost use. Unless better knowledge of optimal soil nutrient management practice is acquired by the farmers, soil fertility levels will continue to decline, further reducing production potential and rural household food security. Government needs to revisit extension support to meet the needs of smallholders and offer training on sound soil management, sustainable production methods, composting and livestock management. A handbook with graphic detail should be accompanied to provide smallholders with information and advice on how to manage soil fertility.
An investigation of household food insecurity coping strategies in Umbumbulu.
(2008) Mjonono, Mfusi.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.
This study set out to investigate the food insecurity coping strategies of sample households from the Embo community in the Umbumbulu district of KwaZulu-Natal. A total of 151 Ezemvelo Farmers' Organisation and 49 non-EFO members were interviewed in two rounds, beginning in October 2004 and March 2005. The total sample included 200 respondents from 176 households. A survey questionnaire was used to collect data on socio-economic characteristics, food consumption patterns and application of consumption coping strategies. The study used the Coping Strategy Index to establish the food security status of the households by calculating and comparing the Coping Strategy Index Scores of households. Households applied short-term food consumption coping strategies to cope with food shortages and resorted to short-term income coping strategies when they experienced income shocks. Coping strategies employed by households were effective in mitigating food insecurity. Most strategies applied by most households were not detrimental to livelihoods and did not compromise future household food security. Food insecurity increased the frequency and severity of application of coping strategies employed by households. Households ate less preferred foods, skipped days without eating and ate wild foods. These coping strategies were particularly dangerous to households as proper nutrition is critical for ensuring healthy and productive lives. Food security interventions need to support beneficial coping strategies currently employed by households. Relevant stakeholder like the Departments of Health and Social Development need to target nutritional interventions through workshops and training with vulnerable households. Supporting protective coping mechanisms entails protecting entitlements to land, water resources and productive and non-productive assets. Agricultural production improved the incomes and food consumption of the sampled households. Sustainable agricultural production should be promoted and sustained at household level. The Ministry of Agriculture and local development agencies should assist the community by providing production inputs, for example, provision of vegetable seeds, mechanisation, infrastructure and information on improved production techniques to encourage greater productivity and wider engagement in agriculture. Home gardens could make iii valuable contributions to family food supply and income. The Ministry of Agriculture and local development agencies should give more advice through extension and training services, providing support through negotiation of contracts with suppliers. While agriculture may play a major role in the reduction of food insecurity, attention should also be given to the promotion of non-farming activities, particularly those that can reduce food insecurity. The community and households should actively engage in the design and implementation of policies government policies and strategies for farm and non-farm interventions.
Do household coping strategies mitigate perceived household food insecurity among sample households in Dasse administrative area, Gash-Barka zone, Eritrea?
(2009) Beraki, Yergalem.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.
This mini-dissertation sets out to examine the perceptions of farmers in the Dasse Administrative Area of Gash-Barka zone of the impact of agro-ecological, socioeconomic and infrastructural constraints on food insecurity, and the coping strategies employed by 101 sampled farm households in order to understand how these strategies increase vulnerability or mitigate the effect of food shortages. Agricultural productivity was low and average cereal production provided only 39 per cent of annual household requirements. Self-sufficiency in grain obtained from own production sustained households for only four months a year. In line with this, the study examined the impact of agro-ecological, socio-economic, and infrastructural constraints to the problem of food insecurity as perceived by the farmers. Farmers perceived drought, erratic rainfall, and weed infestations as major agro-ecological constraints that hindered self-sufficiency in food production. Shortage of draught animals and labour and lack of cash and off-farm income, were most conceived socio-economic constraints that affected production. Lack of farm credit, health problem (malaria), and inadequate farmers advisory service were most perceived infrastructural constraints that affected production and household food security. This shows that food security interventions need to be built around mitigating these perceived causes. The study also investigated coping strategies and their impact on increasing vulnerability or mitigating the effect of food shortages. The coping strategies applied by the studied households were largely consumption-based and non-erosive, indicating that households were relatively resilient to food security shocks. However, these strategies could be detrimental to the nutritional well being of household members, as they determined dietary intake. These coping strategies were particularly detrimental to household food security, as proper nutrition is critical for active and productive life. Thus, health and nutrition related interventions are highly required to address these problems. Food security interventions need to support livelihoods in ways that protect and buffer the natural resilience of households, providing direct assistance when erosive coping strategies are employed to ensure that households remain resilient to the fragile and variable situations in which they exist.
Impact assessment of the integrated nutrition programme on child malnutrition in South Africa.
(2009) Musvaire, Rufaro.
The Integrated Nutrition Programme (INP) was implemented in 1995 to target child malnutrition in South Africa. This study assessed the impact of the INP on child malnutrition by province and age group using secondary data. Data from three national nutrition surveys, conducted in 1994, 1999 and 2005, were used to describe trends in child stunting, underweight, wasting, vitamin A deficiency and iron deficiency. The relationship between the prevalence of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in prenatal women and child nutritional status; challenges and constraints to implementing the INP at provincial level; and government responses to nutrition recommendations by lead experts in the 1994 and 1999 surveys were also investigated. Child nutritional status varied across provinces. In some provinces such as the Northern Cape, stunting, underweight and wasting remained consistently high. Stunting decreased in the Eastern Cape, but rates of wasting increased between 1994 and 2005. On the other hand, Gauteng and the Western Cape generally had lower rates of malnutrition compared to the other provinces. This may be due to these provinces being the most economically active in the country thus more opportunities for employment and higher purchasing power of foods rich in micronutrients. By 2005, vitamin A deficiency had doubled in most provinces despite mandatory food fortification being implemented in 2003. KwaZulu-Natal had the highest rates of vitamin A deficiency, while Limpopo had the highest rates of iron deficiency. By 2005, malnutrition had decreased in children aged seven to nine years, but had increased in those aged one to three years. There was a significant positive correlation (p<0.01) between the prevalence of HIV in prenatal women and vitamin A deficiency nationally. The prevalence of HIV in prenatal women was positively correlated (p<0.05) with rates of wasting in children aged one to three years. Limited skills, inadequate monitoring and evaluation, and limited infrastructure were common challenges and constraints to implementing the INP at provincial level. The effect of HIV on human resources and the higher demands of HIV infected patients also posed a challenge to provinces as they implemented the INP. Government responded to most recommendations made by nutrition experts. Supplementation,food fortification, growth monitoring and nutrition promotion programmes were implemented. Based on the data, it would appear that INP activities targeted at school-going children were more effective than those targeting children under-five. Although food fortification was implemented in 2003, the vitamin A content of fortified products might not have met legislative requirements. Additionally, because vitamin A is unstable to heat and light, if vitamin A fortified foods are cooked or stored this may also influence the bioavailability of vitamin A. Maternal HIV status might have attenuated child nutrition outcomes due to the negative effect of HIV on related health conditions such as child caring and feeding practices. Some of the challenges and constraints at provincial level might have negatively affected the implementation of the INP and consequently its impact. Although government responded to most recommendations made by nutrition experts, ongoing monitoring and evaluation of child nutritional status were not adequately done, which might have also negatively affected INP outcomes. In addition, factors in the macro-environment such as food inflation and access to basic sanitation, could have lessened the impact of the INP on child malnutrition. Interventions directed at malnutrition in children under-five need to be prioritised. There needs to be rigorous monitoring of micronutrient content, especially vitamin A, of fortified foods. Future studies need to include assessment of nutritional status in HIV affected and infected children to help identify specific needs and develop appropriate policies. Frequent nutrition surveillance to assess key child malnutrition indicators is required.
The nutritional quality of traditional and modified traditional foods in KwaZulu-Natal.
(2009) Modi, Minse.; Siwela, Muthulisi.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.
The role of traditional foods in reducing hunger and malnutrition is not well documented in South Africa. The aim of this study was to investigate the distribution, popularity and nutritional value of traditional foods in KwaZulu-Natal through evaluation of recipes submitted for a traditional foods recipe competition. Traditional recipes are characterised by indigenous or local ingredients passed from one person to another over many generations, with little or no change in form. Modern recipes include those which use processed ingredients. Modified recipes include those which use processed ingredients. Modified recipes include a mixture of traditional and modern ingredients. The differences between the ingredients of traditional, modern and modified recipes were investigated to determine how modifying and modernising traditional foods changed their nutritional quality. Using competition entries from a traditional recipe competition from all 11 districts of KwaZulu-Natal, the nutritional value of 1200 recipes was analysed using published Food Composition Tables. The 10 most commonly submitted recipes were identified. The majority of recipes came from the more rural districts of KwaZulu-Natal. The largest number of recipes submitted were traditional (68% of entries) followed, respectively, by modified (24%) and modern (8 %) recipes. Adult females submitted more recipes than female youths, male youths and adult males. In general, modified foods had higher nutrient contents than traditional and modern foods. There was a negative correlation between food popularity and nutrient content suggesting that popular foods were not necessarily the most nutritious. It was concluded that the people of KwaZulu-Natal simultaneously use traditional, modified and modern recipes, but that there is a shift towards food modification through use of non-indigenous crops and modern ingredients. Further investigations into the relationship between food choice and the effect of modification on food quality attributes, including sensory and storage quality, are recommended.
Can small-scale poultry production contribute to household food security in the Maphephetheni lowlands, KwaZulu-Natal?
(2009) Mosisi, Moleka Pange.; Tyler, Nicola Claire.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.
This study investigated the feasibility of small-scale poultry production to contribute to household food security in the Maphephetheni lowlands in KwaZulu-Natal. Forty households, selected by stratified random sampling (eight households per sub-ward) participated in a trial to assess the feasibility of egg and broiler production, from commercial lines, and the potential for generating income to improve household food security. The study established that participating households acquired the necessary skills through a training module offered, actively engaged in poultry production and marketing of the produce, and managed their funds well. Market demand for poultry products in the Maphephetheni lowlands was high from both local consumers and traders. Egg production profit was constrained as eggs were not sorted into sizes according to South African standards and local selling prices, but, contrary to commercial market practice, the eggs are graded ‘standard’ regardless of size. Both egg and broiler production are technically feasible in Maphephetheni lowlands, but broiler production is more economically viable than eggs and more highly desired by households. Households reported that poultry production could provide much needed income and reduce poverty and hunger in their community. Although household dietary diversity did not improve, income increased and was put into a savings account. Households borrowed and used this money for various needs, but not necessarily to supplement their diets. Commercial point-of-lay pullets and three-week old vaccinated broilers could be used in the Maphephetheni lowlands, but broilers were more commercially viable than point-of-lay pullets. It is recommended that broiler houses be established with the capacity for brooding each 500 day-old chicks which are sold (live) at six weeks. However, technical and financial support is required to maximise the benefits, increase household income, improve diets and reduce vulnerability to food insecurity.
A case study of the impact of irrigation on household food security in two villages in Chingale, Malawi
(2008) Kalima, Edna.
This case study investigated the impact of irrigation on household food security at Ibu and Kalizinje villages in Chingale, Malawi. The aim of the study was to investigate whether irrigation improved household food security. The study was qualitative in nature. Fifty-eight farmers and three World Vision field staff participated in the study. Group discussions with participatory techniques and in-depth interviews were used to collect data. Data were analysed qualitatively using matrix/logical analysis. Irrigation improved irrigating farmers’ household food security through an increase in production and income levels. Irrigating farmers were better off in terms of crop production and income levels than non-irrigating farmers. Irrigating farmers planted irrigated maize two to three times a year, while non-irrigating farmers planted rain-fed maize only once a year. In terms of income levels, irrigating farmers produced more food than households required, and sold surpluses. Most irrigating farmers began cash cropping after the introduction of irrigation and also earned higher incomes, as irrigation enabled production of crops during lean periods and enabled them to sell surpluses at higher prices. Irrigation did not improve crop diversification. Non-irrigating farmers diversified crops more than irrigating farmers by planting groundnuts and sweet potatoes. Income from irrigating farmers did not increase dietary diversity and the acquisition of assets for irrigating farmers. Few farmers consumed a variety of foods and few acquired assets with the income derived from irrigation. Nevertheless, irrigation has the potential to smooth production cycles and provide food and income during seasons when food and income would be low. In addition, the study revealed the following as problems faced by farmers: constraining size of small diesel pumps, pump breakdown at Kalizinje, floods, pests and diseases, storage problems, lack of market places and poor roads, small land sizes, and expensive farm inputs.
Collective farming : elements constituting an effective agricultural co-operative, the case of three co-operatives in the Umgungundlovu district.
(2010) Dlamini, Thulile Rejoice.; Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.
Collective smallholder farming has been widely promoted as a vehicle for smallholder agricultural development in South Africa. As a result, agricultural co-operative registrations in South Africa are increasing. However, research suggests that South African co-operatives have generally not been effective, successful and functional. This study investigated the elements constituting an effective and functional primary agricultural co-operative among three smallholder agricultural co-operatives. It is expected that identification of these elements may enable institutions that offer support to co-operatives make better decisions to improve smallholder farming through primary agricultural co-operatives. Understanding of these elements could inform the efforts for members of co-operatives to achieve their set objectives and thus improve smallholder agriculture profitability. Three rural agricultural co-operatives in the Local Municipalities of Mooi-Mpofana, Mkhambathini, and Richmond in the Umgungundlovu District Municipality were purposively selected for the study because they were registered agricultural co-operatives. Inyamvubu Co-operative (from Mooi-Mpofana) was larger in membership, and well established compared to Umphumela (from Mkhambathini) and Ingwe-Mndeni (from Richmond). The sample included the purposively selected members and non-members of agricultural co-operatives to explore the differences and provide insight to the knowledge, opinions and perceptions of collective farming. A framework for analysing the effectiveness of agricultural co-operatives was developed using literature of objectives of agricultural co-operatives, success factors of smallholder agriculture and organisational effectiveness. This framework was used to analyse the effectiveness of the three co-operatives. Focus group discussions, Force Field Analysis and a survey were used for data collection. The study revealed that the three co-operatives have clearly defined group objectives aligned to those set out by the South African government. The main identified objectives of farming for the three co-operatives included; creation of employment and income generating activities, improving access to funding, strengthening market access and strengthening human and community development. Activities carried out by the three co-operatives took advantage of opportunities in the value chain including production, marketing, and transportation of produce to markets. However, farmers’ activities were hampered by a number of constraints. Production capability of the three co-operatives was hampered by resource constraints such as lack of access to land, machinery and equipment, finances and information relevant to production. Marketing, transportation and financial management capability of the three co-operatives was hampered by poor networking skills, poor infrastructure and low literacy levels. Management capability in the three co-operatives was challenged by complex group dynamics characterised by conflict of opinions and issues related to free-rider, horizon, and portfolio problems. Low capability of the three co-operatives to mobilise resources, use the limited resources available and low capability to manage institutional arrangements rendered the co-operatives ineffective in achieving their set objectives. The study recommends strategies for ensuring the effectiveness of agricultural co-operatives. These include strategies for addressing internal and external issues affecting the co-operatives. Direct intervention from government was recommended to improve production through revising land allocation systems, improving extension services and strict monitoring of effective use of government resources provided to farmers. Government should improve access and training to relevant technologies to improve the processing and packaging capabilities of co-operatives. Marketing and management activities should be supported through provision of improved infrastructure and relevant training. Farmers themselves should consider pooling resources for market rental of crop land, engage in value added activities, and develop informed marketing programs and cost-effective distributing mechanisms. Farmers should elect an effective board of members that will ensure enforcement of agreements and constitution.
An evaluation of the perceived benefits and constraints of community gardens established by the KwaZulu-Natal Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs.
(2008) Mpanza, Thamsanqa Philangenkosi.; De Villiers, Johannes Frederick.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.
This study provides feedback from the Extension Officers and community garden members involved in community garden projects of the KwaZulu-Natal Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs, by investigating the contribution of community gardens to household food security. The investigation included interviews with 61 Extension Officers from the Bergville, Hlanganani, Eshowe, Vryheid and Mbumbulu districts and 106 community garden members from 31 community gardens in the Bergville and Hlanganani districts. It was found that the people involved in community gardens were older persons, with little or no education. Those involved in community gardens were unemployed and relied on pensions, remittances and selling handicrafts to purchase garden inputs. The average household dependency ratios were 4, 5 and 5, 5 persons per active household member in Hlanganani and Bergville, respectively. Community garden members were mostly females, but most community garden members’ households were male-headed. The community garden members indicated that the most important reason for producing vegetables was for household use. Extension Officers were not satisfied with the state of community gardens and the relationship between the regional and district offices. Community gardens do not reflect the effort put in by the Extension Officers. The Extension Officers want to be involved in determining research priorities and be regularly informed about research findings and policy changes made at the regional level. The Extension Officers would like to see all government departments working together towards the development of communities. Extension Officers believe that if the government departments pool their resources, they would be able to serve the communities better than when each department works alone on community garden projects in the same community. Despite the initial funding of community gardens by the KwaZulu-Natal Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs, there were many factors limiting production of vegetables in community gardens. The limiting factors included poor soil fertility; small garden plot sizes; low water availability; high start-up costs and poor management of the community garden finances. The community garden members were positive about the contribution of community gardens to their lives. The benefits were in the form of information about vegetable production, cropping practices and the availability of fresh vegetables that provided nutritious food and allowed them to buy other household requirements instead of vegetables. Community garden projects have a potential role to play in the lives of many rural people if the following concerns raised by the Extension Officers are addressed: the relationship between the offices at district level and the regional level improves; the establishment and maintenance of sound channels of communication between the district field staff and the regions; research support is received from the regions; and government departments work together. The KwaZulu-Natal Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs should not only focus on providing infrastructure for projects but should also ascertain that the proposed project achieves the objectives of both the community garden members and the Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs and that the beneficiaries are trained before the project is handed over.
Perceptions of barriers to market participation among three farmer groups in rural KwaZulu-Natal.
(2008) Mthembu, Nonkululeko.; Thamaga-Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.
There has long been evidence that many smallholder farmers can benefit from marketoriented agriculture. However, smallholder farmers often face a number of barriers to accessing the markets. Smallholder market access is often cited as a factor that exacerbates the smallholder situation, but is little researched. This study investigated barriers to market participation among three smallholder farmer groups in rural KwaZulu-Natal. It is hypothesised that identification of these barriers could assist in institutional innovation to alleviate market constraints and challenges faced by smallholder farmers. It is also expected that addressing such barriers may create enabling conditions that would encourage smallholder farmers to access and participate more effectively in markets. Such efforts could improve the ability of smallholder farmers to become part of the mainstream or commercial agricultural economy. Three farmer groups from rural areas of KwaZulu-Natal (Centocow, Mbumbulu and Muden) were selected to participate in the study because they had interests in marketing fresh produce. One group (Mbumbulu) was a certified organic producer and was supplying a formal market. The other two groups (Centocow and Muden) were not organically certified and sold produce to informal markets. A three way comparison that included agricultural Policy Reform, Integrated Development Plans (IDPs) from Local Municipalities and focus group discussions was used to check and validate farmers’ responses to questions asked. Agricultural policy reforms relevant to these groups were reviewed. IDPs were analysed to evaluate service delivery and provision of infrastructure (enabling conditions for market participation). Focus group discussions were conducted to investigate farmer experiences in marketing and perceptions of agricultural policy constraints. The study revealed that access to resources, market information, infrastructure and farmer support services were barriers to market participation. Efforts to incorporate smallholder farmers through agricultural policy reforms in large scale agriculture have failed. Programmes to create enabling conditions (e.g. infrastructural development and telecommunications) were either not budgeted for or not implemented by local municipalities. Local economic development programmes focused on developing tourist attractions, although communal areas (Centocow and Mbumbulu) have the potential for agricultural growth. Local municipalities also faced challenges, such as lack of capacity to plan, implement, budget for planned projects, lack of service provider commitment and municipal funds. The results showed that despite barriers to market participation, smallholder farmers still marketed limited amounts of produce. If identified barriers are addressed, the issues raised in this study might improve market participation. Some barriers require direct intervention by government, as in the case of support services, extension service, credit and training. Investment in good infrastructure may encourage smallholder farmers to participate effectively in markets. This may be done by establishing a market infrastructure that includes collection points, transportation and market deposits in order to address the problems of proximity to markets. Such intervention should require the involvement of the private sector.
Assessing the food security status of households participating in community gardens in the Maphephetheni uplands determined by the Household Food Security Access Scale.
(2007) Shisanya, Stephen Odede.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.
While South Africa is nationally food secure, the m ajority of rural households are food insecure. Community and home gardens are widel y promoted to alleviate food insecurity. Households in the Maphephetheni Uplands , KwaZulu-Natal have come together to cultivate community gardens, producing food crops for consumption and selling surpluses. This study evaluated the contrib ution of community gardens towards alleviating food insecurity in the Maphephe theni Uplands. A survey was conducted among 53 participants of community garden s and their households. A questionnaire and focus group discussions were used to evaluate the following household food security measures: anxiety and uncer tainty about food supply; consumption of a variety of preferred foods; consum ption of sufficient quantities of food; and the prevalence of food insecurity. Eighty percent of the participating households had insufficient food intake, 72% consum ed food of inadequate quality and 89% were anxious and uncertain about food suppl ies. Among the households surveyed using the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale, 88.7% were categorised as severely food insecure, often going a day withou t eating, going to bed hungry or running out of food for more than ten days in a mon th. Eight percent of households were moderately food secure, and three percent were mildly food insecure. No households were food secure according to the classi fication. Only 11% of the household food was sourced from community gardens, while 83% was purchased and six percent was sourced from home gardens. Limited community garden sizes, drought, floods, theft, pests and diseases were ide ntified by community gardeners as factors limiting the contribution of community gard ens to household food security. Community gardens have not alleviated food insecuri ty among the participating households. It is recommended that an investigation should be carried out on how productivity could be improved through appropriate crop husbandry practices to reduce crop loses. Since purchasing is the main sou rce of food among community gardeners, alternative income generating activities need to be investigated.
Measuring the impact of crop production on household food security in KwaZulu-Natal using the coping strategies index (CSI)
(2007) Ngidi, Mjabuliseni Simon C.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.
Crop production is widely promoted as a solution to food insecurity, but its real impact on household food security has not been measured in South Africa. Small-scale production is a common practice for many rural poor households of South Africa. While agriculture may play a major role in reducing food insecurity, agricultural growth alone cannot solve the problem of food insecurity at household level. South Africa is food secure at the national level, but available data suggest that between 58.5 and 73 percent of South African households experience food insecurity. This study set out to measure the impact of crop production on household food security among sampled households in two communal regions, Umbumbulu and Maphephetheni, of KwaZulu-Natal, to establish whether participation in food production improved household food security. Household surveys which explored the types of crops produced, food consumed, income obtained from crop sales and the food security situation, were carried out at Umbumbulu and Maphephetheni respectively (n = 200 and n = 68). The types of crops produced were investigated using crop production seasonality charts, while the household food security situation was measured using the Coping Strategy Index tool. The main findings of the study indicated that household gardens provided food for household members, but did not provide sufficient quantities to meet year-round consumption requirements. Most sampled households relied largely on purchased foods. More than 80% of the food consumed by households came from purchases, 4% and 13% came from own production in Umbumbulu and Maphephetheni respectively. Among the households surveyed, 58% and 89% were below the poverty line for Umbumbulu and Maphephetheni respectively. Umbumbulu and Maphephetheni’s largest household income contributions came from wages or salaries. Social grants were the second most important source of household income. As participation in crop production alleviated food shortages somewhat, its contribution to food security cannot be ignored. A study needs to be conducted to investigate whether participation in both farm/non farm activities reduces the number of households below the poverty line. Government should provide extension officers to monitor and evaluate the impact of gardens on household food security. To guide the design and implementation of commercial and home gardens, households need to develop clear and consistent policies, strategies, processes and procedures, and (a sound) monitoring and evaluation framework.
The impact of policy on perceived livelihood vulnerability: the case of Cato Manor.
(2005) Caister, Karen Fern.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.
This dissertation describes the outcome of a sustainable livelihoods approach to assess the livelihood vulnerability of community structures in Cato Manor (an urban renewal project of Durban City, KwaZulu-Natal). The sustainable livelihoods approach used looked at the specifics of the nature of assets wealth, and how the poor made a living. The vulnerability of poor households and communities depends on the way the poor have combined available assets and capabilities within a particular context to achieve short and long term priorities. Amongst other contextual issues of developing countries, structural adjustment has affected urban survival strategies. This study explored whether the impact of post-apartheid policy had reduced livelihood vulnerability for members of ten community structures in Cato Manor (CM). The investigation was broken down into two sub-problems. Sub-problem one was to establish what impact post-apartheid policy outcomes had on livelihood strategies in Cato Manor. Sub-problem two set out to ascertain whether the livelihood strategies described by participants in Cato Manor reflect reduced livelihood vulnerability. A unique feature of this study was an agreement between community based facilitators from Cato Manor (Cato Manor Development Association (CMDA) team) and the researcher for the development of two research agendas. The CMDA team, comprised of five community facilitators from the Seliyabuya Housing Co-operative and a Cato Manor Development Association consultant, conducted sustainable livelihoods analyses as the first stage of strategic planning for community structures. A secondary case study analysis of livelihood vulnerabilities was carried out by the researcher using the secondary data from these sustainable livelihoods analyses. Ten of the thirty five community structures (29%) identified by the CMDA team as possible participants elected to participate in the sustainable livelihoods analyses. Members of these structures formed ten groups based on the focus of their structure goals. Each focus group conducted a sustainable livelihoods analysis that reflected the assets, strategies for livelihoods and constraints that affected structures' priorities. Each participant was also asked to complete a household survey questionnaire providing demographic data for the case study. The findings of this study showed a tension between government's structural adjustment goals and the realities of actual delivery. The development goals provided for an urban space with the physical structures for livelihood security and sustainability. The study identified that development has provided a significant accumulation of physical assets through infrastructure delivery. However, perceptions of the participants indicated that development has not provided sufficient economic opportunities; adequate housing; or educational, social and recreational facilities for desired livelihood outcomes. In addition, participants believed manufacturing and business growth dependent on the successful marketing of products was in direct conflict with the actual physical restrictions of the topography, housing density goals and conceptualisation of the economic opportunities existing in Cato Manor. Participants relied on survivalist strategies of micro-enterprises (such as informal trading), and reliance on collective community support as available rational options for survival. Livelihood vulnerabilities indicated by the study were: overcrowding of homes, both in formal and informal areas; national economic trends resulting in job shedding by the formal sectors; and the slow beginnings of local economic development. In addition, there would be the threat to this community of the unknown impact of or capacity for the eThekweni Municipality's continuing the development required in Cato Manor after closure of the Cato Manor Development Association; and the impact of HIV/AIDS on the human, economic and social capital. This study showed increasing vulnerability for households and community structures represented by the sample in terms of physical capital, financial capital, and human capital. This vulnerability was particularly characterised at community level by the perception of increased dependency on cash amidst a corresponding reduction in available cash. It has been recommended that a creative institutional response, using clearly defined roles and responsibilities, collaborate with the community to define and make use of entry points for the transfer of skills and Local Economic Development support for the creation of employment opportunities. In addition, it was recommended that local government make full use of their knowledge of the livelihoods activities, and human capital in Cato Manor to facilitate the speedy delivery of appropriate infrastructure and economic support in a manner that supports the sustainability of municipal management as well as increases the livelihood options of the poor. To complement this study, further research requires an ongoing evaluation of the impact of local government and the community's responses; and an exploration of how democratic citizenship can be developed through the facilitation of grass-roots collective organisational strategies.
Evaluation of the impact of a household food security programme in QwaQwa using a coping strategy index.
(2005) Majake, Mosela Paulina.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.
The Free State Department of Agriculture distributed food security packages to Qwaqwa households in 2003. The purpose of distributing food security packages was to improve the food security status of poor households. Thirty households received food security packages to the value of R4500.00 each between March and May 2003. The packages were designed to include: garden fencing materials, gardening tools, winter and summer seeds, fertiliser, water hoses, twenty village chickens, chicken feed and a portable, ready made poultry cage. This study sets out to evaluate the impact of these packages distributed by the Department of Agriculture to Qwaqwa households by comparing dietary diversity, frequency of consumption, income sources, coping strategy applications and food security status. Maxwell et al 's (2003) Coping Strategy Index (CSI) was used to determine relative food security status. Data on household demographics, food consumption patterns and consumption coping strategies was collected from 30 recipient households and 30 non-recipient households whose names were on the waiting list for food security packages in Qwaqwa. The results of the study showed that the packages improved food security in recipient households. First, the frequency of consumption of most foods included in packages (carrot, beetroot, eggs as by-product of chicken and chicken) was higher among recipient households. Food consumption patterns improved in recipient households as more households diversified food intake. Second, some coping strategies applied by recipient and non-recipient households were similar, but the frequency of application of these strategies differed between households in the two groups. The frequency of application of similar strategies (eating less preferred food, purchasing food on credit, visiting friends to eat with them, restricting consumption of adults in order for small children to eat, borrowing food, sending children to visit relatives, skipping entire meal eaten in a day, reducing meal sizes, and sending household members to beg) was higher in non-recipient households. The classification of strategies according to severity levels (least severe, moderately severe, severe and very severe) was done by community members. Recipient households applied the least severe strategies and moderately severe coping strategies more than non-recipient households. Non-recipient households applied more severe and very severe strategies more often than recipient households. As a result, recipient households' average coping strategy index score was lower than that of the non-recipient households, suggesting that food security packages improved recipient households' food security status. Lack of suitable scavenging space for the chickens and lack of knowledge of freely available chicken feed constrained the impact of the packages on household food security. Recommendations include training of extension officers and households in village chicken rearing and harvesting of chicken feed. It is recommended that the Department of Agriculture should adhere to its original plan of giving twenty-month old chicken to households and should use the Coping Strategy Index for identifying food insecure households and monitoring and evaluation of the impact of the food security programme.
Food quality and safety of solar dried fruits and vegetables in the Butha-Buthe district, Lesotho.
(2005) Miricho, Esther W.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.
This study investigated the quality and safety of solar dried fruits and vegetables produced by households in three locations in the Butha-Buthe district of Lesotho from November 2002 to March 2003. The aim of the study was to enhance year round availability of fruits and vegetables and reduce post-harvest losses, contributing to increased food availability and accessibility in the district. The study analysed the quality and safety of dried fruits and vegetables by assessing the processing techniques applied by the respondents during the production of dried fruits and vegetables, analysing the quality of dried fruits and vegetable samples produced by the study respondents using Appropriate Technology Section (ATS) solar driers, and by identifying the constraints that hamper the improvement of quality and safety of solar dried fruits and vegetables in the study area. Data was collected through focus group discussions, interviews, and laboratory food quality analysis of dried fruit and vegetable samples provided by the respondents. The dried fruits and vegetables produced by the respondents were of low quality due to poor processing techniques and unhygienic practices that increased chances of contamination and deterioration during processing and storage. Lack of processing skills and information, particularly on quality and safety standards, and weak extension support contributed to poor product. For the respondents to improve the quality and safety of dried fruits and vegetables, they need training and support with respect to quality and safety that includes training on the importance of food safety, best processing and storage practices and marketing of dried produce.
Printed information access, preferences and use by farmers with potential for small-scale organic production, KwaZulu-Natal.
(2004) Stefano, Lynn.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.; Stilwell, Christine.; Morris, Craig Duncan.
Printed information access, preferences and use by small-scale farmers in KwaZulu-Natal, who are experimenting with or converting to organic farming, were investigated to establish the need for information on organic production, certification, and marketing. Forty-six resource-poor farmers from four groups at Umbumbulu, Tugela Ferry, KwaMashu and Muden participated in semi-structured group interviews. Guiding questions, information tabulation, ranking and sorting, and voting were used to gather data. Five printed agricultural information materials were evaluated. The findings indicated that the participants trusted and relied on intermediaries for access to innovative, research-based information, and preferred interpersonal communication over other information channels. Printed materials were valued for their permanence, while participants preferred materials in isiZulu as 75% of participants were able to read and write isiZulu or were able to ask family members to read materials in isiZulu. At least one functionally literate farmer was a member of each of the participating farmer groups. Appropriate printed information on organic production, certification and marketing had not reached the participants. Characteristics of printed information materials preferred by participating farmers included: large typeface, photographs, drawings, step-by-step instructions, stories about people and events, context-specific content, the use of plain language in English or preferably isiZulu.
Agricultural development and food security in post-conflict southern Sudan.
(2011) Kenyi, Michael Roberto.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.; Shimelis, Hussein Ali.
This study was set out to examine household food security in post- conflict Southern Sudan. Over the past four years the Government of Southern Sudan and Development Partners have shown increased interest in accelerating agricultural development and food security in the country. This study provides insight into the key factors responsible for food insecurity, the challenges faced and household coping strategies employed to reduce and manage risk, assure food supply, improve dietary diversity and take advantage of economic opportunities for sustainable livelihoods. The problem addressed by this study was whether cereal (sorghum, millet, maize and wheat) availability in three of the ten states of Southern Sudan improved in the five year post conflict period (2004-2008). The study explored if cereal grain production increased and how households coped with the unavailability of cereal grain. The researcher gathered data and information from multiple sources, including 542 household questionnaires and nine focus group discussion conducted between June and August 2009. Quantitative analysis supplemented the extensive qualitative data sources. The major challenges experienced by households with regard to food security were limited access to extension services, production inputs, processing, credit/saving facilities, training, market information and physical infrastructure. Evidence showed that food insecurity occurred due to the lack or absence of feeder roads, communication and transport facilities, strategic value chain alliances and partnerships; and limited exposure to communities for learning in Southern Sudan. The study concluded that the availability of cereals at the household level was generally low, although cereal production increased by small increments across the study areas after the conflict period. However, the increase in cereal production was inadequate to support the cereal needs of households, leading to food insecurity. The study identified the major factors responsible for food insecurity at the household level in the study areas as conflict, drought, floods and erratic rains. Poor infrastructure, weak policies and lack of access to services to improve farm production were among the key constraints reported by households. These factors were perceived by all stakeholders as root causes of inadequate food production in the study area. Household production provided 56.6 % of household food consumption, but this was inadequate to provide year-round. Other food sources included purchases, food aid and gifts. Households relied largely on consumption-based coping strategies when faced with food shortages including: relying on less preferred food, limiting meal portion sizes, mothers reducing their food to allow children to eat and reducing the number of meals eaten per day. These strategies are detrimental to the nutritional status of household members; considering that proper nutrition is critical for active and productive life. Therefore, food insecurity was high in the study areas and detrimental coping strategies were widely practiced, raising concerns of hunger and malnutrition. Food insecurity in Southern Sudan needs to be addressed urgently. Direct interventions to support a significant scaling up of food production (beyond only cereal production) are needed to alleviate hunger, prevent malnutrition and provide for future food security especially among resettling refugees and demobilized soldiers. In many cases food aid and direct transfers of food is urgently needed to address the situation, but this should be short-term and part of an integrated plan to boost production of food at community level. Programmes should be developed to assist households should establish food gardens, diversify cropping and undertake non-farm activities in improving food production and productivity. The local communities should participate in community-based food security needs assessment with strong support provided by the county agriculture department and state Ministries of Agriculture. This must lead to the identification of implementation measures and development of food security plans and budgets that include both increased production and market access. An inter-sectoral Food Security Council (FSC) and a framework for action should be developed to include strategic management of cereal grain reserves, establishment of an effective and and efficient public distribution system, harmonisation of relevant sector policies and development of a well coordinated food security information system. Longitudinal studies are recommended to monitor the food security situation in Southern Sudan and gain a deeper understanding of household coping strategies to inform policies and programmes. Further research is recommended to investigate how to increase the supply of food, promoting dietary diversification, improve access to economic opportunities and manage risk to help vulnerable households become more resilient to absorb shocks, stresses and threats.
Analysis of the local understanding of food insecurity and the socio-economic causes of food insecurity in Ward three of the Jozini Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal.
(2011) Nyakurimwa, Marvis.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.; Pillay, Kirthee.
Although food insecurity is a major problem in South African society, there is limited community level information on what constitutes it and related causative socio-economic factors. This study fills this information gap by analysing food insecurity in Ward 3 of Jozini Local Municipality in uMkhanyakude district in KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa. Specifically, the study explored the local understanding of food security and its socio-economic causes. A qualitative study was conducted using Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) techniques through a four-day workshop, supplemented with stakeholder interviews. The techniques used were historical timeline, seasonal calendar, focus group discussions, transect walk, problem tree analysis, social and resource mapping and semi-structured interviews. A four-day workshop was conducted with 44 participants that included traditional leadership, adult men and women, and young members of the community. The people of Ward 3 of Jozini Municipality regarded food insecurity as hunger that resulted in many socio-economic effects such as collapse of household unity and stability that enhanced erosion of dignity among household members. Hunger was commonly associated with “not eating enough”. Other effects of hunger included household heads, especially men resorting to alcohol and drug abuse as a way of escaping from indignity. The youth were said to be involved in crime, prostitution and alcohol abuse. As result of hunger, sick people defaulted from taking treatment against tuberculosis and Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS). Indicators of food secure households were access to funds, ownership of cattle, possession of arable land and access to water. Very irregular emissions of smoke from kitchens of food insecure households indicated that they had nothing to cook and eat. The people of Ward 3, Jozini revealed the choices made in the context of limited income to buy food. The choices included migration to urban areas in search of employment, women resorting to sex work, livelihoods activities such as gardening and craftwork. In the absence of an adult, many child headed households were said to be food insecure. The socio-economic factors causing food insecurity were poverty, the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and AIDS pandemic, unemployment, illiteracy, low household food production, limited access to resources such as water and land. The HIV and AIDS pandemic exacerbated food insecurity at household level. Furthermore, poverty forced women into sex work which places them at high risk of contracting HIV and spreading it to their multiple partners. In addition, as a coping mechanism men committed crime such as poaching of animals from game reserves which further expose them to loss of livelihoods and food security options. The socio-economic factors contributing to food insecurity were so intertwined such that an integrated approach is recommended as the best approach for solving the compounded problems. Further local population should be engaged to define solutions to the problems. To enhance self-reliance and self-drive among communities, adult basic education training should be incorporated to reduce the high illiteracy rate. The local leaders should be engaged to bring the large tracts of land owned by old people into full utilisation. The non-government, government and institutions working in the area should strengthen and diversify livelihoods to promote livelihoods sustainability and enable communities to survive shocks by reducing asset poverty.
Determinants of participating in non-farm economic activities in rural Zanzibar.
(2011) Kassim, Mansura Mosi.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.; Zegeye, Edilegnaw Wale.
This study set out to examine the determinants of participation in non-farm economic activities by farming households in rural Zanzibar, using data from the Agriculture Census of 2003. The study goes beyond the traditional focus of non-farm studies that focus on analysing geographical and socio-economic variables on decisions to participate in non-farm activities and in so doing, fills an information gap and contributes to the understanding of determinants of farm household participation in non-farm activities in rural Zanzibar. The survey from which data were drawn, included surveys of 4755 household heads. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression model were applied to investigate the effect of individual characteristics on the decision to participate in non-farm economic activities. Gender, age, family size and level of education were used as variables to explain individual preference with regard to the decision to undertake non-farm economic activities. The analysis also included farm production factors including farm size, planted area and the main source of household income. The results show that gender, age, household size and income sources outside agriculture are the key factors that influence farming household’s decisions to participate in non-farm activities. Women and young farmers were more likely to participate in non-farm activities. Heads of larger households were also more likely to participate in non-farm activities, and undertake more than one activity in this sector. The type of activity engaged in also seems to have a positive influence on the decision to participate in the non-farm sector, with selling of agricultural products, fishing (including seaweed farming and selling of fish), wage employment and petty trade being more popular and attractive activities. Factors like education, landholding size and area of land planted were less important in influencing participation in non-farm activities. All sampled households participated in non-farm economic activities, with 70 per cent of the participants undertaking more than four activities simultaneously. This points to the importance of non-farm economic activities in providing opportunities to sustain household food security and increase the capacity for households to mitigate shocks. However, a strong relationship was found between participation in non-farm activities and the use of forest resources, as a significant number of activities depend on forest resources. The forest-based non-farm activities reported were: beekeeping, charcoal making and tree logging for poles, timber and firewood. This raises significant concern over the over-utilization of forest resources and subsequent sustainability of the related activities. It is recommended that efforts towards promoting non-farm economic activities should be directed towards developing non-farm activities that are not dependent on forest resources. Interventions enabling increased farm productivity or non-forest activities are important in ensuring food security in Zanzibar. More policy and programme attention should be given to the role of women in non-farm activities.

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