Doctoral Degrees (Environmental Science)

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Soil conservation policy in South Africa, 1910-1992 : the human dimension.
(1996) Cooper, Amanda.; Garland, Gerald George.
The overwhelming focus of documentary sources indicate that traditional approaches to land degradation and soil erosion in South Africa have focussed on the physical dimension of the problem and the development of practical solutions to its reduction. This study was undertaken from the viewpoint that this emphasis has resulted in the neglect of other (for example, socio-political) aspects of soil erosion and that such neglect has exacerbated the soil erosion problem manifest in South Africa. An examination of the 'human dimension' of soil erosion in South Africa was therefore undertaken through an analysis of soil conservation policy and legislation promulgated to effect policy objectives between 1910 and 1992. Acknowledging that the policy environment is influenced by factors within the economic, political, historical and perceptual (all human) environments, as well as the natural environment, this study attempts to integrate information relating to each of these parameters within the overall framework of South African soil conservation policy. Particular emphasis is placed on the role of environmental perception in the decision-making process, together with the critical influence of intervening variables found to be operative within the perceptual environment as represented in the South African context. In the absence of substantive empirical data, this study posits a number of a priori assumptions regarding the extent and causes of soil erosion, support for which was initially derived from the extensive literature sources reviewed for the study. The basic premise of this study is that soil erosion persists in South Africa, and despite considerable government and public inputs and participation, and the existence of a legislative machinery created specifically to address the problem, progress in promoting soil conservation through implementation of specific measures has been slow. Following a review of soil conservation policy and legislation up to 1992, it is further submitted that factors other than legislative inadequacies could account for this problem and therefore warrant particular and thorough investigation. To this end, this work firstly describes the physical context within which South African soil erosion occurs, followed by a brief appraisal of socio-economic and political variables which together have shaped contemporary perceptions regarding the nature, extent and causes of soil erosion in the country. A comprehensive review of relevant policy and legislation in the period 1910-1992 was then undertaken by reference to published and unpublished sources. The evolution of soil conservation policy in the country was charted through reference to relevant legislation and parliamentary debate. The temporal variation in the relative success of the policy and legislative enactments was measured by reference to relevant indicators. The adequacy of South African soil conservation (as indicated by four key legislative enactments formulated to specifically address soil erosion) was evaluated using key elements of the World Soils Policy as a baseline. Analysis of the Forest and Veld Conservation Act of 1941, the Soil Conservation Act of 1946, the Soil Conservation Act of 1969 and the Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act of 1983, revealed a clear evolutionary progression in which successive acts sought to build upon successes and minimise the weaknesses of previous efforts. This analysis reveals marked temporal variability in the extent to which each element is addressed and explores the multi-environmental (political, social, historical, economic and perceptual) constraints on attainment of all goals. This assessment permitted the compilation of, what the author has termed the South African Policy Environment Model, which takes the form of a working hypothesis. This hypothesis was subsequently tested utilising the 103 responses obtained from a postal questionnaire survey directed at 242 scientists, policy developers and extensionists (representing a 43 per cent return), that is, those persons who either currently or during the study period, were actively involved in the development of soil erosion research and/or the implementation of conservation policy objectives. In spite of the apparent effort by the South African government to address soil conservation, contemporary opinion (according to documentary evidence) suggests that the policies formulated have failed to attain soil conservation goals and reduce the manifest extent and rate of land degradation in the country. This study broadly concludes that such inefficacy of policy may be ascribed to: 1. lack of importance ascribed to soil 2. national level control 3. non-uniformity in application of law 4. inadequacies in the implementation of policy 5. paucity of information on real nature and extent of problem 6. perceptions in an uninformed environment. The study furthermore submits that images concerning the realities of soil erosion are shaped by perceptual filters and the value systems of individuals active in the soil conservation arena, or more specifically, key players' perceptions regarding the causes, extent and nature of the soil erosion problem, are what underpin and ultimately give rise to the relative effectiveness of soil conservation strategies. This study identifies a multiplicity of factors which operate within five dynamically interative environments (the political, economic, historical, perceptual and natural environments) considered influential in shaping the temporal (and spatial) variation in the policy environment represented in this study. This examination of the multidimensionality of soil erosion has led to the conclusion that in addition to the problems broadly outlined above, soil erosion is also a problem of: 1. accountability; 2. focus; 3. priorities and government commitment; 4. situational incompatibility; 5. misinformed perceptions; and 6. timing. It is submitted that lack of recognition of these inter- and intra-environment dynamics could account for the relative inefficacy of soil conservation policy to promote the sustained adoption of conservation practices. Such factors will in the past have been overlooked due to the neglect of the 'human dimension' of the problem in South Africa in the period under review. It is believed that the measure of consensus derived from the results of this study, reflects contemporary realities concerning the status of soil conservation in the country, at least amongst those individuals most intimately involved in the development, formulation and administration of soil conservation policy. As such it provides an appropriate foundation upon which to base future policy decisions and more importantly, to derive optimum compliance with conservation norms and standards of practice amongst land users. Only by recognising the multidimensionality of the soil conservation policy environment and its components, can the past inefficacies be overcome. It is submitted therefore that for South Africa to meet its challenges of the 21st century concerning the conservation and sustainable utilisation of soil, the priority of policy developers must be - the expedient adoption of a multi- and interdisciplinary approach to agricultural resource management, with particular emphasis on its 'human dimension' .
An integrated modelling approach to the management of freshwater inflow to South African estuaries.
(1998) Quinn, Nevil Wyndham.; Breen, Charles Mackie.; Hearne, John W.
Estuaries are recognised for their biological diversity and productivity, as well as the vital role they play in providing habitat for organisms which utilise them as nurseries and feeding grounds. In many parts of the world concern has been expressed that the important functions and values of estuaries are being increasingly impacted upon by human activity. In South Africa diminishing freshwater inflow is a particular concern as this has led to an increase in the frequency and duration of mouth closure, which together with other factors has resulted in a marked deterioration in the condition of many estuaries. Global environmental imperatives require an approach to ecosystem management that is defensible and sustainable in the long term. Current approaches to estuary management in South Africa do not meet these criteria, and consequently, this study set out to develop methodologies to address these shortcomings. Three modelling approaches are presented, which can be used independently, or conjunctively, in defining the freshwater requirements of estuaries. The models assess the consequences of change in freshwater inflow for (i) juvenile fish which utilise estuaries as nurseries, (ii) the availability of intertidal and species specific habitats, and (iii) the population structure and production of a common estuarine invertebrate (Upogebia africana), endemic to the region. These techniques are applied in a case study of the Great Brak estuary (Western Cape, South Africa). The results indicate the utility of the approach and are supported, in part, by the findings of a long-term monitoring programme. The study also recognises the need for resource management to occur in the context of an integrated framework, which includes the explicit definition of ecological goals. Such a framework is presented, and is consistent with the Ecological Society of America's guidelines on sustainable ecosystem management. As this approach has been devised to be applicable to South African estuaries, characterised by poor data availability, it is anticipated that methodologies will be equally applicable to estuaries in other developing countries with a similar lack of data. The methodologies also extend current international approaches to the management of estuary freshwater inflow, and would therefore be of value to estuaries in the United States of America, Australia and other regions where diminishing freshwater inflow has been raised as a concern.
Protected Area Outreach programmes : a case study and critical evaluation.
(1998) Venter, Andrew Karl.; Breen, Charles Mackie.
Sub-Saharan African conservation authorities are progressively shifting their emphasis away from law enforcement based management strategies, towards management strategies aimed at facilitating local community participation in the management of natural resources. These strategies include Community Based Natural Resource Management programmes, Collaborative Management programmes and Protected Area Outreach programmes. This thesis presents a conceptual framework, the Partnership Forum Framework, for the planning, implementation and evaluation of programmes aimed at integrating protected areas into their surrounding landscapes. The framework is structured around the progressive establishment and development of a co-management institution (Partnership Forum) responsible for the integration of a protected area into the surrounding landscape. The framework proposes that the establishment and initial development of such an institution can be characterised into three phases, namely, a forming, storming and norming phase. During these phases the preliminary institutional membership and working rules are defined through a progressive objective driven management process. These phases lay a foundation for a long-term (permanent) institutional performing phase during which the institution's members manage the integration of the protected area into the surrounding landscape, and progressively improve the membership and working rules through an ongoing monitoring and review process. The framework is structured around the following design principles, which need to be explicitly considered during the process of establishing and developing a Partnership Forum, namely: i. That the forum's membership must include the range of individuals, communities and organisations that either affect or are affected by the interface between the protected area and the surrounding landscape, and that the forum's membership boundaries must be clearly defined and not open-ended, ii. That these members must actively participate in defining and, where relevant, implementing the working rules which represent the institutional core of the forum's activities, iii. That the forum's activities should be supported by an ongoing monitoring and evaluation process which can progressively inform the revision of the forum's membership and working rules. Four case study descriptions and evaluations of the use of the framework are presented, based on the use of the framework for the development of four Partnership Fora along the western boundary of the Kruger National Park. The case studies are drawn from file notes and minutes which were kept of all public meetings, forum meetings and workshops arranged within the context of the fora between September 1993 and July 1996. The case study material is used to develop a revised process model for the development of Partnership Forum based programmes, and to develop a list of key questions which should be considered during the process of establishing and developing these institutions. Three key conclusions are drawn from the case studies, namely: i. The establishment of such programmes need to be supported by enabling legislation which gives these institutions appropriate authority over the management and use of the natural resources represented in the relevant protected area and its surrounding landscape. Within this context, the legislation currently being implemented within KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa) is cited as a useful reference for the development of enabling legislation throughout the rest of the region. ii. The institutional development of protected area outreach programmes must address the core property rights issues which are characteristic of the interface between most protected areas and the surrounding landscapes in which they are situated. These issues will include access to and ownership of the natural resources that occur both within and around the protected area. iii. In the short term, the effective establishment of these programmes will rely heavily on collaborative support from southern African non-government agencies to provide the financial and logistical resources required to build the capacity of the forum members to actively participate in the development of a programme.
Geohelminth transmission among slum-dwelling children in Durban, South Africa.
(2001) Mosala, Thabang Innocentia.; Appleton, Christopher Charles.; Olsen, Annette.
Geohelminthiasis is a serious problem in city slums and despite being easily treatable in the short term, its elimination enjoys a low priority by parents, teachers and public health authorities. This is partly due to the greater emphasis given to the AIDS and TB programmes. This study of the prevalence, intensity, and reinfection rates of single and multiple geohelminth (Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura and Necator americanus) infections in young children living in slums (informal settlements) in the Durban Unicity is a first for an African city and one of few similar studies anywhere in the world. The geohelminth status was assessed by means of a baseline survey of ten different slums, followed by two further surveys, one after 4Y:z - 6 months and another after 12 months. Infections were measured by microscopic examination of faeces before and after chemotherapy, and risk factors within and between slums were identified by means of a quantifiable questionnaire. The study showed that: 1. The slums have a high endemicity and transmission rate of geohelminth infections. 2. The sub-tropical climate and environment ensured a high survival rate of infective stages. 3. A. lumbricoides had a high prevalence and intensity, followed by T. trichiura with a moderately high prevalence and light intensity. A small proportion of children had intensities of these helminths an order of magnitude higher than previously recorded from rural areas of South Africa. N americanus had a very low prevalence and a very light intensity. 4. Egg output from follow-up 1 to follow-up 2 increased 4.6 fold for A. lumbricoides and 9.4 fold for T. trichiura. 5. Albendazole proved to be a very effective drug against A. lumbricoides and N americanus but not as effective against T. trichiura. 6. The infection and reinfection rates of A. lumbricoides and T. trichiura proved to be influenced by different risk factors. 7. The most important risk factors included topographical position of the slum, quality of the dwelling, number of inhabitants, geophagy and source of fruit and vegetables. II Whereas the ideal solution to the geohelminth problem in the slums would be to upgrade the slum and its inhabitants, this is not an immediately viable option. The challenge of geohelminth control in these slums must be to determine the degree of environmental contamination by human faeces containing infective eggs, to ascertain the survival rate of the eggs and larvae and to implement a control programme together with suitable education of the inhabitants. The Parasite Control Programme should take into consideration that many slum-dwelling children do not go to school and need to be treated at home. A further factor that will have to be taken into account is that lack of influx control to urban areas will mean the continual reinfection of slum-dwellers by the movement from the rural areas.
Lipid peroxidation and the antioxidant systems in soybean seed maturation and germination.
(2003) Tyiso, Sakiwo.; Smith, Michael Trevor.
The biochemical changes taking place during soybean seed development and gennination, and some aspects of desiccation tolerance were assessed with reference to lipid peroxidation and antioxidant systems. During nonnal seed development, fresh weight and dry weight increased between 20 and 50 days after flowering (DAF), concomitant with the accumulation of triacylglycerols and sugar reserves, after which dry weight remained almost unchanged, and fresh weight decreased. Seed moisture content decreased rapidly during the last stages of development. High levels of lipid peroxidation were evident between 20 and 45 DAF, and decreased thereafter. An examination of antioxidant systems revealed that whereas total glutathione levels accumulated continuously throughout the 80 days of seed development, both dehydroascorbic acid (DHA) reductase and ascorbate free radical (AFR) reductase increased concurrently with the increase in total ascorbate content, and the overall levels did not decrease markedly during maturation drying. Ascorbate peroxidase (ASC POD) activity was high during the period ofgreatest ascorbate accumulation. Both catalase (CAn and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities increased progressively during early seed development (20-40 DAF), but showed variable patterns of change during maturational drying, in marked contrast to ASC POD which declined from 40 DAF to undetectable levels at 70 DAF. An assessment of the relationship between the antioxidant systems and lipid peroxidation was made during imbibition and gennination, as it has been suggested that controlling free radicals was a critical event in early imbibition. Unexpectedly, lipid peroxidation increased progressively in both seeds and isolated axes, and were eight-fold higher at 48 hours of imbibition compared to dry tissues. A progressive, and co-ordinated, increase in CAT, total glutathione, total ascorbate pool, guaiacol POD, ASC POD, and SOD appeared to parallel the rise in lipid peroxidation in both whole seeds and axes. Variable responses were evident between seeds and axes for the enzymes AFR reductase and DHA reductase In order to gain a further insight into the dynamics of desiccation-tolerance and desiccationsensitivity, imbibing seeds were subjected to an unscheduled dehydration treatment, and then rehydrated for up to 24 hours. During these hydration-dehydration-rehydration (H-D-R) treatments, changes in lipid peroxidation and antioxidant systems were measured. Concurrent with the loss of viability in the axes of seeds dehydrated after 24 and 36 hours of imbibition, there were increases in both lipid peroxidation and solute leakage. Unscheduled drying was seen to be a critical stage, as intolerant axes showed four- to eightfold increases in lipid peroxidation, which were only partially reduced on subsequent rehydration. Tolerant axes, on the other hand, were able to maintain low, basal levels of lipid hydroperoxides on drying. The relationship between these observations and the antioxidant systems showed that the antioxidant enzymes CAT, ASC POD, AFR reductase, DHA reductase, guaiacol POD and SOD declined markedly during the unscheduled drying, whereas GSH and ASC declined only slightly. On rehydration, most of the enzymes, total glutathione, and total ascorbate pool increased, the only exception being the loss of ASC POD activity. ORA reductase, which was seen to decrease as a part of nonnal gennination, declined progressively also in H-D-R treatments. These results suggested that loss of viability was not attributable to a decline of the antioxidant systems but rather to the combined deleterious effects of increased lipid peroxidation, and a generalized and moderately compromised antioxidant system. These studies have indicated that the occurrence of lipid peroxidation can be seen as a nonnal part of seed development and gennination. The H-D-R studies, on the other hand, supported the concept that the balance between peroxidation reactions and the protective systems was critical to the development of desiccation tolerance.
The epidemiology of malaria in Zambia.
(2003) Chimumbwa, John Mulenga.; Sharp, Brian Leslie.; Appleton, Christopher Charles.
Nearly half of the world's population lives in tropical and temperate climates where they may be at risk from one or more vector borne diseases. Approximately 2.1 billion people, living in more than 100 countries are at risk from malaria. While the malaria situation has improved in some places, the overall prevalence in Africa, Asia and the Americas continues to deteriorate. This has led nations, institutions, organisations and agencies including the World Health Organisation to call for development of new and innovative approaches to its surveillance and control. In nature, maintenance of malaria transmission involves a complex interaction between the mosquito vector, the human host, the disease organism, and both the internal and external environments. An understanding of this complex relationship is the key to the prevention, control and eventual eradication of malaria. Malaria prevention and control programmes do not only have to be based on sound knowledge of how these factors interrelate, but also on an application of the political will of the concerned authorities. This study attempts to identify some determinants of malaria and to characterise it in epidemiological zones in Zambia. The study aims at contributing to the body of knowledge that would support implementation of an evidence-based national malaria programme. This study has come at an opportune time when there is renewed focus on malaria prevention and control globally. It is hoped that these aspects of the malaria programme in Zambia will not have to be rewritten in the foreseeable future, instead will be improved upon in order to progress to the delivery of quality assured malaria services as close to the family as possible based on the principles of community-health partnerships. The study is presented in a series of chapters; each developed as a follow up to the previous one and forms a bridge to the next. In this way, it enables the reader to build a relatively complete picture of the malaria situation in the country. However, some repetitions could not be avoided with regard to descriptions of study sites. In the chapters dealing with health systems and quantification of malaria risk, the country (Zambia) is taken as the study site. The remaining sections are based on specific sites, selected on the basis of their representing different aspects of the malaria situation in the country. Mapping of households and other referral points provided the basis upon which a Malaria Information System would in future be built. One of the two study sites was special because most of the previously conducted malaria research in Zambia has been conducted at this site. While the other was not only new in terms of malaria research, it also represented locations in the high rainfall zone in Zambia. The introductory chapter sets out the general principles of Geographical Information System (GIS), malariology, entomology, and health systems. The chapter reviews the current global burden of malaria including its implications for economic development of endemic subSaharan African countries, and discusses progress made in the light of drug and insecticide resistance and the changing global weather patterns. This section examines the position of the African continent in relation to the global malaria eradication era and the possible reasons why it was excluded from the global malaria eradication campaign of 1956-1969. It goes on to analyse new obstacles being faced in rejuvenating global interest in malaria programmes, starting with Primary Health Care through to the principles of Roll Back Malaria (RBM). It also emphasizes special Africa-specific initiatives related to malaria, such as the MARA/ARMA collaboration which (through the use of GIS) is providing a basis for evidence-based decision making. The fist chapter deals with the historical aspects of malaria control in Zambia. It traces how malaria was successfully controlled over a period of 46 years. It starts with a rural set up where copper mineral deposits were discovered. From there it traces the history of malaria control spanning almost eight decades to the present day. It outlines the major milestones in both the malaria programme and in the political history of the country; from a British protectorate , through Federation to the present day nation, Zambia. The chapter demonstrates how malaria can be controlled in an intense transmission situation, using a combination of simple and relatively cost-effective interventions. It also demonstrates that political will is an essential element to disease control. The second chapter examines the role of health systems in the delivery of quality, efficient and cost-effective services to the population. It examines the adequacy of health services in the light of time-limited Roll Back Malaria goals, according to the Abuja Declaration of 2000. This chapter analyses the capacity of the local health system to deliver on its health vision of taking quality assured health services (Malaria services) as close to the family as possible. Together, these goals are examined in terms of population accessing the facilities within 30 minutes' walking distance. Chapter three focuses on identifying factors that facilitate or hinder households acquiring and using Insecticide Treated Nets (ITNs) in the same locality. Specifically, distance of households to some reference points is examined. Also the effects of social, economic and educational status of heads of households are analysed. Together all parameters are analysed statistically to isolate the important reasons why some homes acquire ITNs while others do not. The study concludes with an analysis of the importance of ITN s in averting malaria among users. Some anecdotal evidence resented on the value of ITN s in reducing malaria incidence in the general population is presented. GIS is employed in the fourth chapter to produce a malaria endemicity risk map for the country. It employs population Plasmodjum faldparum infection rates. It proposes stratification and compares it with existing expert opinions and the climate-based Fuzzy Logic predictive model. The resultant malaria risk map is verified against existing maps and expert opinions. The chapter then discusses application for local decision making on policy and action. Chapter number five is dedicated to identifying and studying the bionomics of malaria vectors at two sites. It reviews existing literature on this subject, from 1929 to date. It identifies possible malaria vectors, their behaviour and ecology at two sites representing two extreme situations of malaria endemicity in the country. The combination of Anopheles vector densities and their reliance on temperature and rainfall are analysed and the implications discussed. The chapter also looks at possible ways forward for the country in the light of the paucity of information in this respect. P. faldparum infection rates are estimated together with their entomological inoculation rates and possible implications for malaria transmission potential. The final section (chapter six), highlights the major lessons and their implications for global goals and local health policies. It also outlines the way forward chapter by chapter.
Ecological aspects of vegetation establishment on landfills.
(2003) Trotter, Douglas Hartley.; Cooke, John Anthony.; Pammenter, Norman William.
A high level of plant mortality on the Bisasar Road landfill, Durban, South Africa initiated an investigation into the primary causes of the mortalities and a search for potentially tolerant plant species. Field studies revealed that volunteer grass growth on cover soils was primarily limited by elevated soil C02, with high soil conductivity and low soil moisture possibly compounding the effect. Cynodon dactylon, the most abundant coloniser of the site appeared to be relatively sensitive to high soil CO2, whilst less common species such as Sporobolis cifricanus and Paspalum Paspoloides appeared to be less sensitive. Further research focused on the high mortality of trees planted on the landfill providing insight into the important variables limiting survival· and the relative differences in performance of 20 tree species. A more rigorous 14-month field experiment was designed and constructed, to assess the performance of 10 of the more promising tree species, the environmental conditions limiting tree growth and the benefit of a deeper layer of better quality topsoil. Some species, such as Barringtonia racemosa, performed relatively well in the field experiment, whilst other species such as Syzygium cordatum, and Harpephyllum caffrom experienced high mortalities and poor growth. The better quality topsoil layer provided little improvement in the performance of the stronger or the weaker species, however significant improvements were recorded for species with relatively intermediate performance. The composition of the soil atmosphere was shown to determine rooting depth. Species that performed better had deeper roots, possibly assisting them in utilising deeper soil moisture reserves. It was concluded that high soil CO2 and low soil O2 levels were the key variables responsible for poor tree survival and growth in this field experiment. A soil fumigation system was designed to provide more control of soil gas concentrations and to experimentally investigate differential species responses and the relative effects of soil CO2 and O2 on tree survival and growth. The apparatus fumigated, for a period of 140 days, the rhizosphere of 80 potted 'tolerant' (Barringtonia racemosa) and 'non tolerant' (Harpephyllum caffrum) trees with 4 treatments consisting of varying combinations of CO2 and 02. The difference in performance of Barringtonia racemosa and Harpephyllum caffrum in the experiment on the landfill was similar to that of the elevated CO2 low O2 fumigation treatment, supporting the premise that landfill gas was the key cause for poor performance of plants. Reduced stomatal conductance and resultant limitations on photosynthesis were found to be indicative of species sensitivity. Low O2 had an additive effect on the impact of elevated CO2 in Harpephyllum caffrum however, even with normal soil O2 levels, 25% soil CO2 had negative growth effects on this sensitive species. Maintenance of plant health and better performance of Barringtonia was attributed to a high inherent level of tissue porosity and aerenchyma. The research provided a greater understanding of the causes of poor vegetation growth and the possible mechanisms of species tolerance to landfill conditions.
Use of constructivism in the development and evaluation of an educational game environment.
(2004) Seagram, Robert.; Amory, Alan M.
Formal learning contexts often present information to learners in an inert and highly abstract form, making it unlikely that learners would ever use this information in their every-da y lives. Learners do, however, show a greater propensity for retaining information that is seen as having relevance in their lives . Constructivism is an educational paradigm that has gained popularity amongst educationists. The core tenet of this paradigm is that learners learn through interaction with their environment and that all knowledge construction is based on previous life experience. Information that is presented to learners in a contextualised form not only has a better chance of being retained in long-term memory, but also has a greater likelihood of being applied in relevant life situations. This publication deals with the research, design and delivery of important information concerning diseases that have a major impact in Southern Africa. Firstly, learners at the University of Natal, Durban were polled for their existing knowledge concerning four widespread diseases, namely HIV/AIDS , tuberculosis, malaria and cancer. Aspects of these diseases where learners demonstrated a low level of awareness were defined as the primary learning object ives for an educational 3D- immersive microworld. Areas of knowledge concerning the transmission, symptomatic expression, biology and prevention of these diseases were generally not well represented in the learner sample. Hence, information regarding these aspects is presented to learners in a contextualised form within the microworld. Motivation for learners to play in this microworld is provided by a storyline that was researched and written for the portal. In addition, the model used in the storyline design was evaluated for its effectiveness as a tool to be used in the planning of future educational games. A model, the Puzzle Process model, was proposed to inform the design of puzzle interfaces for these types of interactive learning environments, and puzzle interfaces were designed for the virtual environment according to the model guidelines. The learning environment was tested as part of the formative evaluation with a small sample of learners . The testing process made use of both quantitative and qualitative methodologies to evaluate the effectiveness of the learning environment as a possible learning tool. Comparison of pre- and post-gameplay questionnaires showed that learners gained a more indepth and richer understanding of the topics being dealt with in the portal. In particular, the puzzle objects situated in the environment stimulated learners to negotiate meanings for the puzzle interfaces and, in the process, encouraged learners to discuss the topic being dealt with. Results from this study also show that the longer learners discussed and negotiated a certain knowledge domain, the greater their increase in richness of information was for that knowledge domain after gameplay. These results highlight the importance of social dialogue in the knowledge construction process and suggest that environments like these have great potential based on their ability to encourage learners to talk to one another and their facilitators while negotiating mutually acceptable knowledge. The original Puzzle Process model, as well as the Game Achievement model and the Game Object model were modified to account for the need for social dialogue and content. These more comprehensive models are instrumental for use in future virtual world environment design.
Impacts of elevated CO2 on the growth, production and water use of a South African C4-dominated grassland community.
(2004) Motete, Nthabiseng.; Pammenter, Norman William.; Midgley, Guy Franklin.
Abstract available in PDF file.
Use of constructivism in the development and evaluation of an educational game environment.
(2004) Seagram, Robert.; Amory, Alan M.
Formal learning contexts often present information to learners in an inert and highly abstract form, making it unlikely that learners would ever use this information in their every-day lives. Learners do, however, show a greater propensity for retaining information that is seen as having relevance in their lives. Constructivism is an educational paradigm that has gained popularity amongst educationists. The core tenet of this paradigm is that learners learn through interaction with their environment and that all knowledge construction is based on previous life experience. Information that is presented to learners in a contextualised form not only has a better chance of being retained in long-term memory, but also has a greater likelihood of being applied in relevant life situations. This publication deals with the research, design and delivery of important information concerning diseases that have a major impact in Southern Africa. Firstly, learners at the University of Natal, Durban were polled for their existing knowledge concerning four widespread diseases, namely HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and cancer. Aspects of these diseases where learners demonstrated a low level of awareness were defined as the primary learning objectives for an educational 3D- immersive microworld. Areas of knowledge concerning the transmission, symptomatic expression, biology and prevention of these diseases were generally not well represented in the learner sample. Hence, information regarding these aspects is presented to learners in a contextualised form within the microworld. Motivation for learners to play in this microworld is provided by a storyline that was researched and written for the portal. In addition, the model used in the storyline design was evaluated for its effectiveness as a tool to be used in the planning of future educational games. A model, the Puzzle Process model, was proposed to inform the design of puzzle interfaces for these types of interactive learning environments, and puzzle interfaces were designed for the virtual environment according to the model guidelines. The learning environment was tested as part of the formative evaluation with a small sample of learners. The testing process made use of both quantitative and qualitative methodologies to evaluate the effectiveness of the learning environment as a possible learning tool. Comparison of pre- and post-gameplay questionnaires showed that learners gained a more indepth and richer understanding of the topics being dealt with in the portal. In particular, the puzzle objects situated in the environment stimulated learners to negotiate meanings for the puzzle interfaces and, in the process, encouraged learners to discuss the topic being dealt with. Results from this study also show that the longer learners discussed and negotiated a certain knowledge domain, the greater their increase in richness of information was for that knowledge domain after gameplay. These results highlight the importance of social dialogue in the knowledge construction process and suggest that environments like these have great potential based on their ability to encourage learners to talk to one another and their facilitators while negotiating mutually acceptable knowledge. The original Puzzle Process model, as well as the Game Achievement model and the Game Object model were modified to account for the need for social dialogue and content. These more comprehensive models are instrumental for use in future virtual world environment design.
A viable strategy to sugar cane lignocellulosic bio-ethanol development in Southern Africa.
(2004) Qwabe, Sabatha Thulane.; Garland, Gerald George.; Watson, Helen Kerr.
In the current era, oil deficit countries around the world seriously consider shifting dependence from conventional gasoline to renewable bio-ethanol fuel in the transport industry. Arguably, blending l0vol% dry ethanol with 90vol% unleaded gasoline enables ethanol fuel to penetrate the fuel market at relatively lower development costs. Despite creating an important market for the ethanol industry, fuels containing dry ethanol of differential proportions multiply the local risks associated with fuel combustion. Making a sale of one drop of ethanol fuel, for example, is intrinsically tied to the sale of more drops of imported gasoline. Furthermore, an increase (decrease) in conventional fuel prices directly influences a decline (increase) in daily sales of ethanol fuel. Blending bio-ethanol fuel with conventional gasoline in various proportions fails to address the multifaceted fossil fuel crisis in oil deficit countries. Although reducing bio-ethanol production costs can buffer fuel prices to a significant degree when blended in higher ratios, industrial competition for bio-feedstock is a serious limitation for bio-ethanol development in all parts of the globe. Nevertheless, advances in biotechnology may allow the use of a wide range of cheaper ethanol feedstocks (e.g. lignocellulose) leading to an important reduction in ethanol production costs. Temporal and spatial variability of lignocellulosic ethanol potentials in the sugar industry is investigated over southern Africa as a whole. The influence of extremely low (high) production of sugar cane on the potentials development of lignocellulosic ethanol plants is demonstrated in this work. Characterization of bioethanol fuel markets on the basis of blending with gasoline is undertaken at the subcontinental scale. The connectivity between development, consumption per capita, population growth, bio-ethanol energy demand, as well as the critical limits of land stock potentials is examined in this study. On the basis of the special influence that each of the processes indicated above have on bio-ethanol fuel development, an integrated approach toward optimizing the total value of bio-ethanol fuel in the region is formulated. This approach allows the investigation to determine whether critical and beyond critical conditions of land stock lead to a collapse of a human consumption type or whether bio-ethanol fuel development is a totally viable process. Finally, this work ascertains whether sustainable biofuel development is an oxymoron because human development demands a constantly growing fuel consumption per capita, or because of increasing the lower limit, with an infinite upper limit for human development, or as a product of the combined effects of increasing human population with a higher consumption rate per capita of non-growing and non-developing land stock units.
The effect of distance from clinics on maternal and child health (MCH) service utilization and MCH status.
(2004) Tsoka, Joyce Mahlako.; Scott, Dianne.; Solarsh, Geoffrey C.
There is strong evidence from developing countries to support the hypothesis that physical accessibility of health services, particularly absolute distance from clinics, is a major determinant of health service utilization and health status. In South Africa, such evidence is very limited and as a result the relationship between absolute distance and health service utilization and health status is not fully understood. As an attempt to understand this relationship, a household survey of mothers with children aged 12-23 months was conducted in a rural district of KwaZulu-Natal province, South Africa. Maternal and child health (MCH) service utilisation and MCH status patterns were then compared at different absolute distances from PHC clinics. The find ings reveal that the study population is characterised by impoverished living conditions (86%), high functional illiteracy (67%), high fertility and unemployment rates . In comparison with other studies conducted previously in the same population, MCH service utilization rates are high. Based on mean distances of homesteads from PHC clinics in the entire study area before the Clinic Upgrading and Building Programme it has been concluded that the physical accessibility of fixed PHC clinics, when compared with the WHO recommendations, was suboptimal. When this assessment is based on clinic usage patterns, it is found that clinic usage decreased from 86.4% at 0-5 km to 79% at 6-10 km with a dramatic decrease to 37.8% at distances beyond 10 km. This decrease in usage at distances above 5 km translates into a considerable reduction in effective coverage of the target population by PHC clin ic services if it is considered that above 50% of the population live greater than 5 km from these clinics. An assessment of the effect of distance of homesteads from PHC clinics on specific MCH service utilization and MCH status has found very few or no significant differences between mothers and children living at 0-5 km, 6-10 km or > 10 km from these clinics. This observation is consistent even after adjustment for the effects of potential confounding. The fact that distance from clin ics has little or no effect on the indicators of MCH service utilization and MCH status is counter-intuitive. A few explanations can be provided. These include the fact that only 50% of the population, even in one of the most rural parts of South Africa access clinics on foot. Since the traditional assumption has been that this distance effect is a function of straight-line walking distances between homesteads and clinics, Euclidian distances alone may be a poor explanatory variable for health service utilization. Furthermore, if the hypothesis is valid that health status is a function of service utilization, it may also be a poor explanatory variable for health status of community members who are reliant on these services. Secondly, based on data from other sources, there is evidence that there have been steady declines in both mortality and fertility rates in the study population over the past 10-20 years suggesting that client communities are already benefiting quite substantially from health services in general and from MCH services in particular in spite of residual distance barriers. In other words, this distance effect on service utilization and health status may be more evident in populations with much higher background infant, child and maternal mortality rates. Thirdly, it is also possible that distance effect still exists, but that methodological limitations prevented this study from showing this effect. For instance, the fact that people use mobile clinics for some MCH services may have confounded the effect of distance from fixed clinics. It is also possible that people use different facilities for different services even though they are further away, and the assumption that all facilities have equal attraction for clients and that the only determinant of use is distance may be flawed. For example, it is evident from this and from other studies in South Africa that whereas most clients use fixed clinics for vaccinations, deliveries are now increasingly conducted at hospitals. Other methodological issues include the fact that certain health outcomes such as stunting are not an exclusive reflection of health service inputs, but are a function of social and economic determinants. Based on these findings, a number of recommendations are made.
Critical systematic engagements with rural development and nature conservation organizations.
(2004) Luckett, Sidney.; Fincham, Robert John.; Parker, Benjamin Philip.
This collection of papers represents the author's maturing reflection on systemic engagements with three different organizations within the latter half of the first decade in post-Apartheid South Africa. The first two papers deal with two different systemic engagements: the first with a rural community development organization in a rural area of KwaZulu-Natal south of Durban and the second with the implementation of a district health system by a provincial health authority, also in KwaZulu-Natal. The last three are concerned with the theoretical and practical aspects of a single critical systems intervention (CSI) for policy development within the KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Service, a parastatal nature conservation organization. The first paper, Designing a Management System for a Rural community Development Organization Using a Systemic Action Research Process describes the use of Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) for the development of a Human Activity System (HAS) Model, that is, a conceptual model of purposeful human activities, to facilitate debate regarding a 'problem situation' faced by the community development organization. A Critical Systems Intervention to Improve the Implementation of a District Health System in KwaZulu-Natal is the second paper. As the title suggests, this paper describes a Critical Systems Intervention in a district health system implementation process. By using Concept Maps and Sign-Graph diagrams with SSM this paper contributes theoretically to the growing body of literature on methodological pluralism. Paper 3, Towards a critical systems approach to policy formulation in organizations contributes to the literature on organizational policy. It is noted in this paper that whilst there is a substantial body of literature on organizational strategy as well as on public policy, there is a dearth of literature on organizational policy. The thrust of the paper is twofold. Firstly, it draws a distinction and shows the relationship between organizational policy and organizational strategy. Secondly, building on this distinction, it develops a critical systems approach to policy formulation. Paper 4, Environmental Paradigms, Biodiversity Conservation and Critical Systems Thinking develops a framework of environmental paradigms which may be used for any CSI in nature management as a tool for values clarification. The collection concludes with Paper 5, A Critical Systems Intervention for Policy Development within a Nature Conservation Organization. It discusses the process undertaken in the nature conservation organization - Ezemvelo KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife - intervention and shows how the approach to policy formulation (developed in Paper 3) and the framework for environmental paradigms (developed in Paper 4) were used in the intervention.
Organizational culture and its underlying basic assumptions as a determinant of response to change : a case study of KwaZulu-Natal's conservation sector, South Africa.
(2005) Nyambe, Nyambe.; Breen, Charles Mackie.; Fincham, Robert John.
This study was concerned with elaborating theory and informing practice about the process of managing change in organizations. It was premised on the implications of organizational culture and its underlying basic assumptions for strategy, particularly in terms of responsiveness and resistance to change. Harmony between the external environment and an organization's culture was postulated as a critical determinant of the rate of uptake and acceptance of new strategic directions in an organization. Drawing from organizational and critical social theories, past conservation efforts in KwaZulu-Natal were reinterpreted in the light of historical and contemporary developments. The theoretical contribution rests on exploring how basic assumptions, as the core of a culture, may be conceptualized and accessed to examine historically and culturally based meanings of conservation. The practical contribution relates to the need for mechanisms to explicitly address basic assumptions as the core of an organizational culture. Data collection and analysis were informed by the ideas of hermeneutic philosophy, Giddens' Theory of Structuration and Schein's framework of organizational culture. The main source of primary data was interviews that were tape-recorded, transcribed and analysed using a multi-stage process in data organization and interpretation. The analysis involved the identification of common themes and differences in opinion amongst the respondents. Data analysis was done with the help of Nvivo - computer software for qualitative research. The software did not effect the analysis, but assisted in organizing the interview transcripts for analysis purposes: facilitating easy storage, retrieval and querying. The findings revealed a temporal variance in the understanding and interpretation of the mission of conservation in KwaZulu-Natal. Respective executive leaders of the two erstwhile conservation agencies in KwaZulu-Natal were historically very influential in shaping the mission. For the present leadership, four basic assumptions emerged from the data: 'public funding defines who we are'; 'we are leaders in conservation'; 'we know our realities are changing' and 'we are conserving a great natural and cultural heritage'. These assumptions reflect the various themes which the respondents discussed in respect of the present-day strategy processes in conservation in KwaZulu-Natal. Within and across these four assumptions, respondents expressed variable and sometimes contradictory meanings and interpretations. Differences were especially noticeable between the conservation sector's historical inclinations towards public service and its emergent commercial activities. Overall, the study demonstrated the variety of perspectives the respondents used to interpret their understanding and meanings of what the fundamental mission of conservation in KwaZulu-Natal ought to be. The findings highlight the need for those involved in strategic processes to base their activities, and their approaches to managing change, on the continual exploration of basic assumptions as the portal for the ideas, perceptions and beliefs that influence change. In matters of strategy, leaders should work with the prevailing organizational culture and its underlying basic assumptions, rather than develop the strategy and then attempt to deal with the basic assumptions and cultural support afterwards. Finally, the findings suggest that in all visioning and strategy development processes, whether in a conservation agency or some other organization, explicit analysis of assumptions is critical for securing support for, and reducing prospects of resistance to change. Among members of an organization, visions, missions and strategies are unlikely to be effectively internalized unless they accord with the assumptions they hold. This process requires explicit mechanisms for doing so, and this study highlights such mechanisms.
A strategy to improve agricultural production in a rural community through on-farm research and technology transfer.
(2005) De Villiers, Johannes Frederick.; Rijkenberg, Frits H. J.
Agriculture is a potentially important activity to address poverty, hunger and unemployment in rural communal areas. To cater for the needs of the many small-scale farmers in KwaZuluNatal, the Farming Systems Research Section (FSRS) was mandated in the mid-1990s to conduct on-farm, client-orientated research in rural communal areas. The identification of the Obonjaneni community as target area by the Extension staff was based on the fact that agriculture was in a poor state and that very few agricultural activities were taking place in Obonjaneni. Members of the community endorsed this by describing agriculture as "dead and not sick" when the FSRS arrived in the community during late 1997. Secondary information gleaned from the Bioresource Programme indicated that there was considerable potential for improved crop and vegetable production in Obonjaneni. Livestock in the community was destructive and prevented crop production activities in the communal cropping fields. A diagnostic study took place during March 1998, when 17 people engaged in agriculture were individually interviewed at their homesteads. Of the 17 respondents interviewed, 10 (59%) were involved with both crops and livestock, six (35%) planted crops only and one (6%) had only livestock. Most of the agricultural products were retained to satisfy household food requirements, with a very small proportion of products (29% of respondents indicated a once-off income through selling of potatoes, maize or livestock) being marketed in the community. The diagnostic survey, and further discussions with members of the community, revealed that agriculture was in a poor state, in terms, for example, of productivity, community interest in agriculture and livestock control. The two main issues which had a negative impact on the agricultural activities in Obonjaneni were identified as stray animals and a lack of agricultural expertise. Indications were that no-one in the community was permanently involved in agriculture and no-one seemed to rely on agriculture as a source of income. Obonjaneni is, however, an area with high agricultural potential and reports were that, in the past, the community was actively involved in agriculture. At the time of the interviews, no activity was taking place in the 40 ha of communal cropping fields, which had been unplanted for five to seven years at the time of the interviews, due largely to the major problem of stray animals. Maize was the main crop produced in Obonjaneni in areas around the homesteads, with 16 (94%) of the respondents interviewed planting it. People interviewed harvested between 100 kg and 1000 kg of shelled maize, while the yield averaged VI approximately 300 kg per household. The maize yields obtained from the small areas at the homesteads in general did not meet the requirements of households. People in the community did not use lime when growing crops and vegetables. Soil analyses indicated that soil fertility, and particularly the high soil acidity levels, were negatively affecting the production of crops and vegetables. Another important finding was that all the people interviewed spent money on some fertilizer, but 94% of the farmers interviewed had never had their soils tested. The community garden was in a poor state, with low vegetable yields and despondent garden members. Poverty, the agricultural constraints identified and the low agricultural production justified the focus of an on-farm research and technology dissemination programme. The objective of the intervention was to revive agriculture in Obonjaneni. The constraints were used as the basis for planning the research programme. The on-farm trials confirmed that the Obonjaneni area has considerable agricultural potential. It was found to be extremely difficult to initiate a livestock programme to address the constraints. The main reason for this was the absence of an organised community livestock association in Obonjaneni to provide support and to guide a research programme. The main technology dissemination events were (i) activities such as planting, management (e.g. weeding and pest and disease control) and harvesting of trials (ii) farmers' field days and (iii) feedback meetings on trial results. The farmers ' field days drew participation from across all sectors of the community, including community leaders, participating and nonparticipating farmers (including some farmers from neighbouring communities) and pupils, who had agriculture as a subject, from the local secondary school. An important input was obtained from members of the community's Amazizi Maize Association, who shared their knowledge and experiences at the farmers ' field days and at meetings. Feedback from farmers and the questions asked by them were encouraging and showed that some farmers were benefiting from the on-farm trials. A very strong indicator of the growing interest in agriculture between 1997 and 2002, when a comprehensive impact evaluation study was conducted as part of the study, was the increase in the number of fields being cultivated and planted in the communal cropping area. In 1997 not one field was planted; during the cropping season of 1998/1999 eight fields were planted with maize, 16 fields during 200112002 and 44 fields in January 2003 (41 fields with maize vu and 3 with potatoes). Records kept by two farmers showed net profits during the 200112002 season ofR3 572 and R2 443 from the maize they produced. During the impact evaluation study conducted in September and October 2002, individual interviews were held and 113 questionnaires were completed from a selected sample of 223 out of a possible 937 homesteads in Obonjaneni. Women in 68% of these households were found to be responsible for agricultural activities. The feedback from 65% of the respondents was that the state of agriculture in Obonjaneni has improved at the time of the interviews, compared to the situation prior to the on-farm research and technology dissemination programme, when the people had described agriculture as "dead and not sick". The improved production of crops contributed largely to the view that agriculture in Obonjaneni had improved. Bearing in mind the poor state of agriculture, and the total absence of any cropping activity in the communal fields when the FSRS arrived in Obonjaneni. Five years later approximately 90% of the respondents in October 2002 were of the view that agriculture had a good and bright future for agriculture in the community. An important aspect was that approximately 23% of the respondents had the vision of being upgraded from "a small- to a large-scale farmer" category. The on-farm research and technology dissemination programme conducted in Obonjaneni between 1998 and 2002 contributed to the revival of agriculture and benefited people in terms of improved crops and vegetable production, especially in the communal cropping fields and community garden. It was responsible for some employment opportunities (e.g. weeding and harvesting of maize) and for the production of produce to sell and buy in their own community. The intervention of the FSRS engendered new enthusiasm for agricultural production in the Obonjaneni community and contributed to the appreciation by farmers of the enormous potential that agriculture holds for food security and the upliftment of people living in the community. This thesis includes chapters dealing with target area selection, secondary information, diagnostic studies, on-farm research and technology dissemination, the selection of a sample and the results of an impact evaluation study. The many lessons learned during this intervention are translated into recommendations for use in future initiatives of a similar kind.
The social, economic and environmental impacts of ecotourism : case studies of the St. Lucia area and the uKhahlamba-Drakensberg region in South Africa.
(2005) Chellan, Noel.; Bob, Urmilla.
The study focuses on two World Heritage sites in KwaZulu-Natal (uKhahlambaDrakensberg Park and the Greater St Lucia Wetlands Park). It sets out to critically examine the social, economic and political aspects of natural heritage in the context of sustainability and contestation. How these heritage landscapes are managed, and in particular how decisions regarding its use and identity are taken, is the central issue under investigation. In particular, this research examines the how an understanding of stakeholder perceptions allows current management strategies to be assessed for their effectiveness and relevance to the stakeholders in the regions and the development of new management strategies which are relevant to stakeholder needs. In this regard, a central concern is to identify and evaluate the degree of participation in resource management, conservation and in direct ecotourism activities links to the heritage sites. Stakeholders will vary in their ability to influence decision-makers and they are also unlikely to gain or lose out equally from particular courses of action. These are all issues which need full consideration in approaches to sustainable tourism management. This study focused on the following stakeholders: neighbouring rural communities, tourists, accommodation personnel and tour operators. Questionnaire surveys were administered to each of the stakeholder groups identified above. Furthermore, participatory exercises (venn diagrams, resource mapping and problem ranking exercises) were conducted with focus groups. The study reveals heterogeneity within and between communities under study in relation to socio-economic aspects and perceptions regarding the Parks and levels of participation in activities linked to the Parks. In relation to heritage sites, the questions of ownership, transparency and accountability are particularly important. The study of ecotourism impacts and their management offers many opportunities to reflect on the importance of sustainability. The impacts, as outlined by the findings of the study, provides the opportunity for the implementation of biodiversity strategies linked to the establishment of conservation priorities, mobilising and establishing partnerships, identifying biodiversity threats and benefits, and providing incentives to conserve.
Socio-economic and environmental perceptions and impacts of violence and crime in residential areas in Durban, South Africa.
(2006) Perry, Edwin C.; Moodley, Vadivelu.
Violence and crime are amongst the most difficult of the many challenges facing South Africa. There is widespread concern in all segments of society about persistent and widespread violence and crime. The central aim of the study is to critically examine the socio-economic and environmental perceptions and impacts of violence and crime in residential areas in Durban, South Africa, by utilizing specific case studies. This study contributes to understanding the socio-economic and environmental perceptions of crime and violence at the local level. The actual and perceived spatial distribution and understanding of violence and crime ronn a critical focus of this study. This study adopts a multi-conceptual framework (drawing from the psychological/behavioural perspective, political economy approach and rational perspective of physical environment and crime) that coalesces several themes relating to crime and violence including historical contexts, policy frameworks, stakeholder analyses, environmental aspects, economic facets, distributional concerns as well as social and cultural dimensions. The focus of the study in terms of primary data collection was Durban. Within this area the specific residential localities (from infoffilal settlements to upper income areas) were chosen from the lnnerwest sub-region. The four specific communities/localities chosen reflect the residential settlement type and socio-economic differentiation prevalent in the area as well as to some extent the historical residential classification on the basis of race. These localities are Westville (a historically White, upper income area), Reservoir Hills (a historically Lndian, middle income area), Cleffilont (a historically African, working class township) and the Palmiet and New Germany Road in informal settlements. The case studies reflect a cross-section of experiences contrasting institutional dynamics as well as socio-economic and spatial contexts and experiences. Both quantitative (questionnaire surveys) and qualitative (focus group discussions, key informant interviews and ranking exercises) methods were employed to collect primary data from the following stakeholders: residents, businesses, police, private security companies and community-based organizations/community forums. The main findings of the research were that perceptions of safety and security varied greatly depending on personal, socio-economic, and environmental/spatial factors. Gender, class and race emerged as key socio-economic aspects. Furthermore, violence and the threat of violence severely constrain and influence the movements and options of people. Respondents considered several areas within the communities, especially public spaces, to be unsafe. Respondents, especially those who could afford to do so, used a range of security measures. This study shows that acts of violence and crime need to be understood in their environmental contexts inclusive of the locational/spatial, social, economic and political dimensions. An examination and greater understanding of the socio-economic and spatial manifestations of crime and violence is paramount to develop safe and secure environments.
Managing relationships, learning and demands in protected areas : a social systems analysis.
(2007) Nkhata, Bimo Abraham.; Breen, Charles Mackie.; Fincham, Robert John.
This thesis seeks to contribute to the improved understanding of social systems analysis in management effectiveness research on protected areas. It develops and applies propositions for incorporating the analysis of social systems into management effectiveness research. The propositions are designed as theoretical constructs which represent some aspects of social reality in protected area management. They signify an organized way of thinking about the social domain of protected area management. It is argued that an analysis of management effectiveness must recognize the need to take into account the inherent interactive nature of the connections among three variables, relationships, learning and demands. It is suggested that the three variables do not exist in isolation, but are interconnected and exert influence on each other. The interactions among the variables provide this study with a conceptual structure for analyzing the social domain of protected area management. The thesis conceives the management of relationships as a behavioral process in which protected area management agencies influence the decisions and actions of other parties, and vice versa, over a period of time in order to advance shared interests. The effectiveness of relationship management depends on integrated learning, a collective process of managing information in a timely manner so as to enhance the responsiveness of social actors involved with protected areas. Demand management is viewed as a social process in which protected area management agencies develop timely and defensible responses to current and emerging demands from stakeholders. The management of demands is expressed through relationship management and integrated learning. Important in this context is the capability of social actors to cope with complexity, change and surprises. The thesis should be seen as a theoretical premise that focuses on the learning competence of social actors by aligning and fostering their ability to respond timely to the ever-changing demands on protected areas through the effective management of relationships. It should be viewed as making a contribution to the move in protected area management towards developing learning organizations and institutions through a systems approach. This should be interpreted as enhancing learning about the human dimensions of protected area management. And more specifically, effective learning generates timely responses in the management of demands and relationships. The implications of failure to respond quickly enough are epitomized in a number of South African examples such as rivers that stop flowing and conflicts over resource use. The thesis makes a contribution to management effectiveness research by examining in some important ways why research should not be determined solely by biophysical components, but should be extended to the broader social issues that define the nature and quality of management. It is argued that a deep appreciation of management effectiveness requires an understanding of relationships, learning and demands to provide a foundation for systemic social analyses. The thesis illustrates why a behavioral approach to relationships theory provides a foundation for resilient social relationships in collaborative processes. It shows why the establishment and maintenance of an integrated learning system take place in a complex context which links elements of governance learning and management learning. It also evinces why protected area management agencies have to incorporate mental models into adaptive management of demands. These insights imply that the opportunities for effective protected area management are largely contingent on systemic insights into the underlying social structures and processes responsible for emergent problems. By exposing the insights, research on management effectiveness is poised to take new direction.
Towards improved corporate social and environmental reporting in South Africa.
(2007) Mitchell, Clyde Geoffrey.; Hill, Trevor Raymond.
This thesis contributes towards improving corporate social and environmental reporting (CSR) in South Africa, by determining what about CSR would need to be and could be improved. The sources of information for this were twofold. A comprehensive literature review, besides providing the background to the study, determined what specific criticisms have been levied against existing CSR disclosure and CSR systems. This thesis argued that many of these limitations arise out of the many primarily rule-based systems in existence and use, and that CSR should rather be based on sound fundamental principles and a conceptual framework, and be an enforceable standard i.e. with legal backing to ensure compliance. The second source of information on possible areas of improvement was from the users and or the stakeholders. In Part I of the thesis, these users or stakeholders were surveyed to determine which areas of reporting were important, and which needed to be better reported. What was important was that significant expectation gaps were found in CSR specifically regarding reporting the impacts on employees, the public and consumers and the physical and biotic environment. This provided evidence for the need for improvements in actual reporting in these traditional CSR areas, and hence il, . justification for the work ofthis thesis. Having identified areas of weakness and potential improvement in current CSR, an analysis was required to be performed to determine how these areas could be better reported. An assessment would need to be made if in fact these areas could be measured (and hence reported), which was undertaken in Part 2 of the thesis. The thesis revealed the need for improved CSR, and a greater degree of accountability and transparency by business that improved CSR could provide. It was argued that reporting, other than financial, which includes CSR should be prepared using a conceptual framework of principles, similar to that used in financial reporting, and thus a principle-based approach to CSR should be used as opposed to a rule based one. It was noted that such a principle-based approach would address many of the qualitative criticisms levelled against CSR practices, and current rule based systems. Using a systems based approach, a framework of interactions and impacts caused by businesses on social and physical systems was developed, which was used as the basis for a suggested CSR model. The model was validated using a peer and expert review process, and by comparison to the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI), which was used to represent international and South African best practice. However, it was noted that potential measurement difficulties would be encountered if the proposed model were used. It would also need to be determined what practical barriers would exist to implementingthese CSR models in business, which was the objective of Part 3 of this thesis. When the practical implementation of a comprehensive CSR system was evaluated in industry, both the proposed model and the GRI were considered. An important part ofthe measuring process was noted to be company risk assessment, often undertaken by the company's insurers. Where environmental impacts, health and safety, or other potential impacts (e.g. accidents or spills in the transport industry having significant impacts on other road users), were noted to be a significant risk, measurement systems and control procedures had been put in place by most companies. Perhaps the most significant part of risk, besides the potential loss in earning capacity, is potential litigation. Common law litigation would encourage companies to monitor and protect the health of their workers and consumers. Legislation e.g. National Environmental Management Act and Air Quality Act, would encourage companies to monitor their environmental impacts. Thus a combination of risk and legislation encourages monitoring and measurement. The findings of the third part of the thesis suggest that increased pressure should be placed on companies to become IS014001 certified as this would facilitate increased CSR reporting, however, this in itself is unlikely to occur unless increased pressure is placed on companies by (legal of customer). The author suggests that IS014001 certification would be more effective in ensuring environmental protection, than simple CSR disclosure. Significant challenges exist to the possible implementation of many of the key areas identified in the proposed CSR model (specifically where measurement problems exist), and no companies were found to be in a position to report on these aspects comprehensively. The findings of this thesis include that existing legislation and financial imperatives influenced measurement and recording of certain impacts and influences. At the same time, many managers suggested that lack of financial (and other resources), as well as the absence of legal requirements were some of the reasons why other impacts and influences were not measured. Thus it could be concluded that legislation enforcing CSR, together with financial incentives (or penalties for failure to meet such standards), could play a significant role in improving CSR in South Africa.
An assessment of the appropriateness of agricultural extension education in South Africa.
(2008) Worth, Steven Hugh.; Modi, Albert Thembinkosi.
This thesis is about agricultural extension education. The context is agricultural extension in South Africa. It addresses the following questions: To what extent does current agricultural extension education in South Africa adequately reflect the current and changing educational and developmental imperatives? To what extent does it adequately equip extension officers and other agricultural development practitioners to deliver relevant support to farmers and farming communities? In short, how relevant is the training received by South African Agricultural Extension practitioners? The South African government has made significant changes in the policy environment governing agriculture. While the majority of the policy changes fall outside the scope of this research, it can be safely argued, as noted in the current Strategy for South African Agriculture, that the changes are fundamental. The changes redirect agriculture to the majority population which has hitherto been marginalised and generally denied meaningful access to the agricultural sector of the South African economy. To implement these changes, the agricultural sector will need appropriate skills – skills which, it is submitted – are largely lacking within the agricultural extension service and, more relevantly to this study, in Agricultural Extension curricula. In addition to the foregoing, assumptions about farmers and their roles in technology and information creation and consumption, assumptions about the roles of tertiary institutions in the triad of teaching, extension and research and indeed about the triad itself need to be challenged. A system of education which has its origins in the 1800s (before even the industrial revolution, much less the digital revolution) needs, per force, to be interrogated regularly to ensure that it delivers according to the demands of the exigencies of the time. Similarly, assumptions about the aim of development and in particular agricultural development have been questioned in many parts of the world. And yet it is submitted that in South Africa, the basic extension methodologies have not changed in any fundamental way; rather they have adopted some of the outer trappings of new approaches, without assessing the fundamentals of the core extension approach. It is believed that extension is in need of a serious review and that it is timely to do so. Recent research in Africa and elsewhere in the world indicates that extension needs be reconstructed on a different set of operational objectives led by a different vision. The extension strategy herein presented is built around a vision which places the focus on the farmer (and other land users) in the context not of technology, but of creating prosperity. The vision implies that the purpose of agricultural extension is to facilitate the establishment of self-reliant farmers who are contributing to widespread prosperity. The dual outcomes of self-reliant farmers and widespread prosperity are meant to be realised through a new set of =rules of engagement‘. Prosperity is derived out of farmers working together, sharing information, and learning together. Self-reliant farmers are an outcome of a learning partnership between farmers and extension practitioners. This study was conducted in a series of stages. The first thrust examined the nature of Agricultural Extension and the assumptions on which it is predicated. The result of this interrogation was to propose a new concept for Agricultural Extension – Agriflection – which is a learning-based concept aimed at improving the sustainability of the livelihoods of farmers through iterative development processes fostered through a learning agenda that is facilitated by an appropriately trained Agricultural Extension practitioner. To realise such a vision, it is essential that the mission of the extension service be recast to reflect the dynamics of the implications of the vision. The key elements of the mission are, therefore, client-responsiveness and partnerships. The power to realise the vision rests in three critical aspects. First is the capacity of the extension service to engage with its clients as genuine partners in a shared learning agenda. The second is the capacity of the extension service to engage with the many other agencies and organisations which supply goods and services to farmers and land users. The third is ensuring that engagements with farmers support sustainable development, that is, that production of food, fibre and fuel is socially just, economically sustainable and environmentally sustainable. This new vision and mission lay the foundation for a fundamental shift in the way agricultural extension is positioned, resourced, implemented and evaluated. The strategic goals, principles and values presented in this strategy are built on this foundation, and they, in turn, create the framework for constructing the operational plans of the extension service as well as for management and measurement of the service. The second thrust of the study was to filter the Agriflection concept through South African educational and agricultural policy. Given that the agricultural frontier is subject to change in focus and priorities, it was reasoned that the training and education of would-be extension practitioners needs to be able to respond to changes in methods and in the field. The National Government has adopted the outcomes-based model as the general structure for curriculum development. Further sustainable development/livelihoods has been adopted as the general framework for development. Outcomes-based education and sustainable development/livelihoods provide a framework for studying and developing curricula. A tool that enables curriculum analysis and development which allows for adjustment to changing imperatives while maintaining integrity in terms of education and development, would be valuable for tertiary institutions training extension officers. The result of this second thrust was the development of curriculum markers that encapsulated what non-technical knowledge and skills (i.e. Agricultural Extension knowledge and skills) were needed to be able to deliver on the imperatives of the transformation agenda of current agricultural policy. Thirty-four markers were identified. The third thrust of the study was to create a credible method to evaluate Agricultural Extension curricula and to capture and analyse data. A detailed review of methods and approaches was made resulting in fashioning the Theory-led Instructional-Design Curriculum Evaluation (TICE) method. One of the primary facets of this six-process method is questioning of the assumptions on which the discipline of Agricultural Extension is based. Such a questioning would lead to a new theory to govern the evaluation of curriculum. Ancillary to the TICE method were the methods of data collection and analysis. The study consolidated these in presence and efficacy factors. These factors measured the presence of the 34 markers in Agricultural Extension curricula and the extent to which they were addressed, if present. The fourth thrust of the study was the detailed evaluation of curricula of qualifications most commonly held by public sector Agricultural Extension practitioners. The study examined the curricula of agricultural diplomas, of three- and four-year agricultural degrees and of one-year postgraduate qualifications offered by Colleges of Agriculture and selected Universities and Universities of Technology. The fifth thrust was to conduct corroborative investigations in the public sector. This was done by surveying Agricultural Extension practitioners asking them to evaluate the extent to which they believed they have knowledge and/or skill represented by the 34 curricula markers. In addition, a brief analysis was made of Agricultural Extension practitioner job descriptions used in the public sector. This was done to determine what knowledge and skills were expected of Agricultural Extension practitioners and comparing this to the 34 markers. The study revealed that there is very limited Agricultural Extension training offered in the curricula of qualifications held by the majority of public sector Agricultural Extension practitioners. Further, using the 34 markers as the touchstone, it was determined that the current curricula do not adequately equip public sector Agricultural Extension practitioners to deliver on the agenda of current South African agricultural policy. Without extensive revision of curricula in terms of both the quantity and content of extension training, the South African public sector Agricultural Extension service will not be able to realise the intended transformation of agriculture. Its key operatives will not have the knowledge and skills needed to do so. This is a unique study. No study of its kind has ever been conducted in South Africa. Numerous studies have been conducted into the training needs of Agricultural Extension practitioners. None have gone to the extent of questioning the assumptions on which Agricultural Extension is based. None have made a critical examination of curricula in the light of current educational and agricultural policy. This study found that there is an urgent need for serious attention to be given the purpose, scope, outcomes of Agricultural Extension higher education in South Africa to ensure that it can contribute to the positive and sustainable transformation of agriculture.

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