Design and development of novel nanocomposite based electrochemical sensors for quantification of antimalarial drugs and early detection of malaria.

Abstract

Malaria is still a major disease in sub-Saharan Africa and South-East Asia. This is despite different interventions by the World Health Organization (WHO) such as the use of insecticide-treated mosquito net, antimalarial drugs, indoor residual spraying, and rapid diagnostic tools. In 2018, the mortality rate due to malaria was estimated to be 405 000, with children under the age of 5 accounting for 67% of all malaria deaths. Malaria can be prevented and treated using different strategies as recommended by WHO. However, the lack of rapid diagnostic tools with good selectivity and sensitivity is still a challenge. Another problem is the high prevalence of counterfeit antimalarial drugs. These drugs are dominant in most African countries since the cost of medicine is high and some countries lack good quality control and verification processes. Therefore there is a need to develop rapid, low-cost, and portable analytical methods for the quantification of malaria and antimalarial drugs. This review focuses on the role of malaria biomarkers in diagnosis; Plasmodium falciparum Lactate Dehydrogenase (PfLDH), Plasmodium aldolase, Plasmodium falciparum Histidine-Rich Protein 2 (PfHRP2) and Plasmodium falciparum Glutamate dehydrogenase (PfGDH) and Hemozoin. Recent developments in nanomaterial-based electrochemical and colorimetric biosensors for malaria diagnosis are discussed. Also, electrochemical sensors for qualitative and quantitative analysis of different antimalarial compounds (Quinoline-related compounds, artemisinin derivatives, antifolates, and antibiotics), which have been approved by the World Health Organization are covered. Finally, the closing remarks and future perspectives of electrochemical sensors and biosensors conclude the review.