Masters Degrees (Environmental Science)
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Item Integrating conservation and development : a study of KwaJobe.(1997) Lewis, Fonda Frances.; Breen, Charles Mackie.Low levels of development, increasing levels of environmental degradation and poverty are features which characterise many rural areas in the Developing World. The socio-economies of these rural communities are primarily founded on the direct utilization of the natural resource base. The challenge faced by rural communities is thus to achieve socio-economic growth and stability in conjunction with environmental conservation and stability. Integrated conservation and development projects (ICDPs) have been applied in underdeveloped areas with the objective of enhancing biodiversity conservation through approaches which attempt to address the needs, constraints and opportunities faced by the rural communities. While successes have been recorded, critical analyses by researchers have found that few projects have met their objectives. This case study in KwaJobe, KwaZulu-Natal, attempts to ascertain the development priorities as identified by the community. The participatory rural appraisal techniques utilized in this study provide a valuable approach for local people to provide information to outsiders, as well as to analyse their own circumstances with reference to natural resource management. The findings of the study indicate that the community is characteristic of many rural communities in underdeveloped areas. The development priorities identified by the community focus on economic and social welfare needs. The presentation of two natural resource based development models, ie, a resource based tourism development and an irrigation development, were used to interpret the development preferences and priorities of the community. From this it was possible to ascertain that the communities development priorities do not include natural resource management or environmental conservation. Development initiatives which rank these criteria as the primary objective do not induce support from the community. Approaches to rural development thus need to focus primarily on the meeting of community identified needs if they are to be accepted and supported by the community. Methods need to be devised to facilitate sustainable development which offer opportunities for environmental conservation, rather than attempting to achieve development via conservation initiatives. There is thus a need for a change in the focus of ICDPs from using conservation initiatives to facilitate rural community development, to a focus which prioritises meeting the development needs identified by the communities. Attempts can then be made to facilitate environmental conservation by means of integrated development and conservation projects (IDCPs).Item An evaluation of small scale forestry in the Kwambonambi region of KwaZulu-Natal.(1997) Othusitse, Botshabelo.; Mander, J.; Quinn, Nevil Wyndham.; Myles, M.South Africa is a country poorly endowed with natural forests, which account for less than 1% of the total land area. Due to the increase in the demand for forest products in the 1970's and 1980's, which could not be met by the natural forests , the two South African pulp and paper giants, Sappi and Mondi, started the Project Grow and Khulanathi schemes respectively. One of their objectives was to encourage rural communities, through financial assistance, to plant trees on their farms for sale to the forestry companies. Planting of trees by farmers on their own land for their economic, social and environmental (reafforestation) benefits is called social forestry . Social forestry should bring economic activity, capacity building and community empowerment. The benefits from social forestry are two dimensional. The growers benefit from the financial assistance and the readily available market provided by the company, while the company satisfies its demand for timber (pulpwood). The primary objective of this study is therefore to identify factors that influence the choice of trees as a land use in communal areas, and to recommend ways of improving benefits accruing to the growers in particular and the community in general. The factors were determined through structured face to face interviews consisting' of both closed and open-ended questions. The results of the study show that the major motivating factor in tree planting is the perceived financial benefits while lack of land is the major limiting factor. Even though tree planting contributes to social upliftment , it was found that there is 'insufficient capacity building, community empowerment and environmental awareness among growers. Cooperatives are recommended as institutions that will enhance growers' participation in tree planting and maximise the grower benefits from trees . As institutions, cooperatives will be better placed to access relevant information in areas such as marketing and have more bargaining power than individual growers. It is further recommended that the afforestation permit system should be reformulated to include permits for communally owned areas.Item Indigenous wildlife management knowledge systems and their role in facilitating community-based wildlife management projects in Botswana.(1997) Thakadu, Olekae Tsompi.; Kaniki, Andrew M.; Bell, Richard H. V.The current plight of biodiversity decline has led ecologists, resource managers and policy makers to search for new approaches to reverse the gloomy trend. The aims of the present study were to investigate the potential contribution of indigenous knowledge systems in wildlife management/conservation as a basis in improving community based natural resources management projects in Botswana and to asses the link between indigenous ecological principles and conventional ecological approaches in wildlife conservation. For the purpose of this research, hunting was chosen as a parameter for assessment of the indigenous conservation/management strategies. The choice was based on the knowledge that hunting, as a consumptive form of wildlife utilisation, plays a pivotal role in the long-term viability and sustainability of wildlife populations. The research approach made use of documentary data, traditional gathering, interviews involving key informants and focus groups and participant observation. The nature and purpose of the research called for snowball sampling technique which ensured purposive sampling. The greatest challenge that face indigenous knowledge systems is that they lack systematic documentation as they are only in the minds of local people and they are orally transmitted between generations. The threat towards this knowledge base is that it is often marginalised and lost in the modern times due to fragmentation and homogenisation of cultures and traditional institutions that supported it. It was through the urgent need dictated by this status quo that this research project was conceived in an attempt to document, understand and cautiously interpret the systems and practices for potential contribution to conventional natural resources management strategies. Research findings showed that communities had resource management and conservation strategies based on sound ecological principles though these were marginalised in favour of conventional inadequate conservation attempts that had no relevance to the cultures resident within the ecosystems. It is these resource use strategies together with the traditional institutions and structures which regulated them, that suggestions and recommendations made by this research calls for their revitalisation and policy, legal and institutional reforms and harmonisation to accommodate and give way to the adoption process in conventional conservation endeavours.Item Green consumerism : a way forward in South Africa? : a case study in Pietermaritzburg.(1997) Addai-Poku, Kwasi.; Reavey, Duncan.The study assessed the possible significance of Green Consumerism in South Africa. Different meanings of "green" are explained. Consumer preferences for some green products was examined. An analysis of the attitudes and actions of South African consumers to green products and services was completed in two suburbs, of Pietermaritzburg, as a case study. Though there was a significant difference in total household income between shoppers in the two suburbs there was no significant difference between their respective green expenditure. Consumers generally preferred cheaper conventional products to more expensive green products. Consumers considered price as the most important factor when making purchasing choices and the higher the price differential, the more likely consumers are to select cheaper conventional products rather than green alternatives. Public education, government intervention in the form of lower taxes or subsidies for green products and encouragement of green movements are required if Green Consumerism is to become a meaningful alternative in South Africa.Item Ecological and economic aspects of treating vegetable oil industrial effluent at Darvill Wastewater Works in Pietermaritzburg.(1997) Moodley, Shomenthree.; Darroch, Mark Andrew Gower.The dissertation analyses the economic and ecological aspects of Darvill Waste Water Works (WWW) through key indicators from Sustainable Development Records (SDR). The SDR study identifies disturbances caused by large concentrations of soap, oil and grease (SaG), therefore a framework of proposed solutions to dealing with these problems has also been investigated. The first component of the study highlights the importance of adequate indicators. Key indicators provide important information that is useful to management and policy makers. The SDR used to analyse the DarvillWWW in Pietermaritzburg provides relevant information for the management of Darvill WWW and Umgeni Water (UW), the City Council and the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF). According to the SDR model the Works is identified as a service providing social institution. The operation of this institution affects the community of Pietermaritzburg as well as the surrounding natural environment. SDR uses the key indicators of effectiveness, Thrift and Margin to analyse the economic and ecological impacts of the service provided.The study incorporates relevant data for Darvill WWW during 1993- 1996. Effectiveness measures the degree of compliance with national water quality standards as set out by the DWAF. Compliance of the following variables, E.coli, Chlorine, Soluble Reactive Phosphate (SRP), Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Conductivity, Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Ammonia were investigated. These variables produce varying trends. Increasing compliance is linked to improved plant efficiency while decreasing compliance is linked to the poor quality of industrial effluent. Industrial effluent containing large concentrations of SOG is a particular problem. Thrift measures the costs of operating the Works in terms of energy, chemicals, labour and capital. Overall financial, energy and labour thrift declined while chemical thrift increased. Increasing chemical thrift is due to the reduced consumption of chemicals as a result of a greater reliance on the process of biological phosphate removal. Decreasing thrift is related to increased costs of capital, energy and labour due to the deteriorating quality of vegetable oil effluent. Margin measures the deviation of non-complying samples from water quality standards. Analysis of the data produced varying trends. The following variables were analysed, E.coli, Chlorine, SRP, TSS, Conductivity, COD and Ammonia. Marginal difference is studied in an attempt to analyse those samples which do not comply with national standards. Deteriorating quality of industrial effiuent seems to be the reason for deviation from the standards. Chemical margin was also studied for the period between 1993-1996. Chemical margin is a comparison between the value of sludge produced and the cost of chemicals used to produce the sludge. The SDR study highlights deteriorating quality of industrial effluent as a cause for concern to Darvill WWW. Proposed management options are investigated to provide a workable solution. The second part of the study investigates alternate options for handling wet industrial effluent from the vegetable oil industries. These industries were identified as the source of large concentrations of SOG that were entering the Works which impacts negatively on the operational capacity, thereby increasing operating costs and decreasing the quality of the service provided. Vegetable oil industries were found guilty of discharging industrial effluent that did not meet the City standards into the sewers, they were also charged with illegal dumping into rivers. The study identified the interested and affected parties and alternate solutions were proposed to the problems. Interested and affected parties include UW, Pietermaritzburg City Council, DWAF. Some of the aspects that were investigated include the local industrial tariff, the drainage By-laws, national legislation, the "polluter pays" principle and the principle of pollution prevention. Economic incentives using economic instruments were reviewed. These include ecotaxes such as marketable/tradable permits and pollution charges. These instruments may allow for more equitable charges thereby promoting the "polluter pays" principle. The use of these instruments may be able to achieve a workable solution but further investigations are necessary. SDR analysis indicates that Darvill WWW seems to be effectively treating wastewater but operating costs are increasing in order to achieve compliance. These costs are being unfairly borne by the City ratepayers and UW and a more equitable situation is necessary.Item Agrohydrological sensitivity analyses with regard to projected climate change in Southern Africa.(1997) Lowe, Kerry Lynne.; Schulze, Roland Edgar.Climate change resulting from the augmented "greenhouse effect" is likely to have significant effects on the terrestrial hydrological system and the social and ecological systems linked to it. Climate change could potentially affect inputs to the agrohydrological system such as rainfall, temperature and potential evaporation; processes within the system such as vegetation dynamics and crop production; and hydrological responses such as runoff, recharge of soil water into the vadose zone and net irrigation demand. This study outlines the use of a daily water budget model, ACRU, and SCENGEN, a climate change scenario generator, to assess potential impacts of global climate change on agricultural production and hydrological responses in southern Africa. This study also considers potential impacts of climate change on plant response which may determine the extent of potential impacts of climate change on agricultural production and hydrological response. Two approaches to climate change impact studies are adopted for use in this study. The first, and more conventional approach considers the impact of a specified climate change scenario, in this case developed with the use of SCENGEN, on the terrestrial hydrological system. The second approach considers the degree of climate change, in this case precipitation change, required to perturb the hydrological system significantly in the various climate regimes found in southern Africa. A comparative analysis of the sensitivity of selected hydrological responses to climate change produced the following results, in ascending order of sensitivity: net irrigation demand < stormflow response < runoff < recharge into the vadose zone. The impacts of a specific climate scenario change on hydrological responses produced unexpected results. A general decrease in mean annual precipitation over southern Africa is predicted for the future with SCENGEN. However, widespread simulated increases in runoff, soil moisture content in the A- and B-horizon and recharge into the vadose zone are obtained. These increases are a product of the CO2 "fertilisation" feedback, which is incorporated as a maximum transpiration suppression routine, in the ACRU model. Net irrigation demand, which is not linked to this routine, is simulated to increase in the future.Item Marine resource utilisation : the perceptions of stakeholders regarding crayfish harvesting at Mfazazana, KwaZulu-Natal(1997) Rich, Jessica.; Scott, Dianne.; Oelofse, Catherine.The illegal sale of East Coast rock lobster (Panulirus homarus) along the N2 highway at Mfazazana on the south coast of KwaZulu-Natal, continues to create tension between the local community and conservation and other authority structures in the region. Panulirus homarus (P. homarus) is a valuable commodity in an area distant from industry and other economic prospects and is within easy reach of both the harvester, in terms of its intertidal living space and the market, in terms of the N2 and the economy in seafood prevalent in the region. P. homarus is therefore at risk by virtue of its biology and habitat, and the illegal nature of its capture tests the parameters of sustainable resource management still further. This research addresses the issue of sustainable resource use through an examination of the perceptions of the various stakeholders who are involved in the use and protection of P. homarus at Mfazazana. This study was commissioned by the Communications Section of the KwaZulu Department of Nature Conservation (KONC) in response to continued illegal harvesting and trade of P. homarus at Mfazazana. One of the mandates of the Communications Section is to initiate and maintain environmental education programmes and thus comply with the KONC mission statement (See Appendix 1a). Specific objectives of the study include: • how respondents perceive their relationship with, responsibility to and role in terms of P. homarus • how respondents perceive their relationship with, responsibility to and role in terms of the others involved with P. homarus • how present legislation is perceived by stakeholders • what options exist regarding the regulation and/or management of P. homarus • whether changes over time have occurred in the respondents' relationship with P. homarus Fishing and trading activities were inv~stigated using informal, loosely structured questionnaires which elicited qualitative information. Two main groups were selected. and respondents were interviewed either individually or in small groups. The crayfishers made up the first group and the resource managers made up the second group which included the Natal Parks Board (NPB), the KONG, the Hibberdene Tourism and Publicity Association, the Community Policing Forum, the Community Development Forum at Mfazazana and the South Coast Fishing Forum. The study provided an understanding and explanatiol] of how the elements of the locality interact with underlying structures and human agency in time to produce the conflict over the marine resource P. homarus at Mfazazana. It was found that the conflict between stakeholders, as a result of differing perceptions regarding the illegal harvesting of the resource, was obstructing the sustainable management of P. homarus at Mfazazana.Item The economic potential of game hunting on a small reserve.(1997) McKenzie, Margaret Caroline Mary.; Hearne, John W.There is an increasing recognition that conservation projects need to provide tangible benefits to the communities involved in them. In Africa a common method of providing economic benefits to communities is to sell the right to hunt wildlife in conservation areas. The Makasa Nature Reserve is a joint project between a conservation body and a community. The reserve is a conservation project that aims to provide economic benefits to the community involved. There are a number of possible income generating strategies for the Makasa Nature Reserve. This study is an examination of the revenue that the reserve could generate from game hunting. There are a number of wildlife species on the reserve that can be hunted but buffalo are the most attractive to hunters and the most lucrative for the reserve. In order to determine the number of buffalo that can be harvested a two-stage approach was used. Firstly, a deterministic mathematical model of the buffalo population was developed in the study. This model was used to establish age structures of the buffalo population which will maximise a given objective function. An age structure that has a harvest level that will maximise the revenue of the reserve was selected as being the most appropriate for the buffalo population at Makasa. In the second stage a stochastic model of the buffalo population was developed which incorporated environmental and demographic stochasticity. A management policy for the buffalo population, which was based on the age structure that maximises revenue, was developed. The stochastic model was used to aid the development of the management policy and to determine the average harvesting rate of buffalo from the Makasa reserve. Using the information gathered on the harvesting rate of buffalo and combining it with the likely harvesting rate of other species from the reserve, it is possible to get a broad picture of the likely economic potential of game hunting on the Makasa Nature Reserve. This approach of determining the offtake of the economically dominant species in the reserve and then combining this information with the likely offtake of other species in the reserve can be generalised and applied to similar reserves.Item Socio-economic and environment impacts on the utilisation of umSimbithi Tree (Milletia grandis) in Eastern Cape : a case study of Mt. Thesiger Forest, Pondoland.(1997) Obiri, John Angoro Festus.; Lawes, Michael John.; Granger, James Edmund.Wood products from Milletia grandis (E. Mey) skeels (umSimbithi), a prominent tree in the coastal scarp forests ofPondoland, form an important economic base for the craft workers in Urnzimvubu District ofthe Eastern Cape. The local carving industry draws considerable income in a place where employment opportunities are scarce, poverty is rife and financial burden and dependency is high. Despite the curio trade being perceived as important by the local communities, little is known about this craft work industry or its impact on the forest especially the sustainability of the wood resource base. Resource availability and impacts of harvesting were assessed at Mount Thesiger Forest Reserve (MTFR) through sampling plots and social surveys oflocal carvers and curio traders. Stem size-class distributions ofstanding trees and stumps were used to investigate the present quantity, past harvesting patterns and distribution ofM grandis within the forests. Line transects sampling confirmed umSimbithi as a forest margin species penetrating to about 50 metres into the forest from the edge and its. current use was found to be unsustainable. Current monitoring and management of most State forests in the Eastern Cape is inadequate, and although a harvest ban has been served, it has only led to and encouraged poaching. Social surveys indicated that the quality of monitoring and sustainability of wood stocks in the Headmen forests appear better than in State forests and this raises hope for successful comanagement structures in the area. Craftwood production and derived income varied from one month to another depending on wood availability, size and shape of stems, with straight stems being most preferred. MontWy income per carver was estimated between R960 to RIIOO while the annual yield for the estimated 100 carvers in the communities surrounding MTFR approximated RI.l million. It was observed that higher sales could be obtained if (1) the amount of wood wasted during harvests and carving could be minimised and (2) the craft products were marketed in the lucrative up markets such as Johannesburg, Durban and Maseru. Interviews with 30 carvers pointed to several problems most of them originating from the stoppage of harvest permits following the ban on umSimbithi. Various recommendations addressing carver's needs and promoting sustainable resource management are proposed. These include (1) establishing an appropriate land tenure system, (2) reviewing the permit system, (3) strengthening the institutional capacity ofthe Forest Department and (4) enhancing efforts on community forest outreach through the extension system. Above all, and to achieve sustainable forest management in Pondoland, tenurial rights needs to be addressed and the options of co-management, community management and privatisation are discussed. It was noted that for sustainable development to be realised in Pondoland, co-management ofnatural resources is important and this must be supported by introduction ofother economic activities that would alleviate pressure off the forests.Item People's perceptions of flood hazards and their attitudes towards resettlement: a case study of the community of Azalea in the Greater Edendale Complex, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.(1997) Maphanga, Koekie Constance.; Fincham, Robert John.The thesis addresses flooding as a natural disaster which has, on occasions, occurred in many parts of South Africa, especially in KwaZulu-Natal and Orange Free State. The prevailing impression is that the flood situation is worsening in KwaZulu-Natal. In the floods of 1987 which inundated a greater part of this province, more than three hundred and eighty people lost their lives. Recently, the flash flood that hit the Greater Edendale area near Pietermaritzburg on Christmas Day 1995 resulted in the death of approximately one hundred and sixty people. The latter figure is relatively high when considering the fact that only a small part of the province was affected. Why do floods kill so many people and destroy their property? The answer is not because rainfall has increased but it lies in the development of floodplains for settlement. It has been estimated that at the beginning of 1993, between 50 000 and 100 000 people in South Africa have settled within flood lines. Now the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry estimates that 150 000 people are currently living at risk under the flood line. With this considerable number of people living at risk, there is an urgent need for an action. A concerted effort is required from the responsible authorities, the communities affected, and the people of South Africa as a whole in order to alleviate and if possible eradicate this problem (floodplain settlement and subsequent loss). Resettlement of these people is an obvious solution to this problem. However, those people who live in flood prone areas (affected communities) should be engaged in any envisaged relocation strategy. That is one of the reasons why this study was undertaken. The aim of this study is to understand the affected communities' perceptions of flood hazards and their attitudes towards relocation. But why is it necessary to understand people's perceptions and attitudes? The reason is to get an understanding of how these people view the problem of flooding and solutions thereto so as to make informed recommendations that can be adopted by responsible authorities in endeavouring to combat the problem. This study was undertaken in Azalea, a residential area m the Greater Edendale Complex (Pietermaritzburg). Azalea is an example of a community under threat from flooding. The method used in data gathering is called Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA). PRA was preferred because it is community oriented. In order to accomplish the aim of this study, two hundred and fifty (250) people were interviewed. This figure is used as representative of the community of Azalea. For the purposes of this study, the interviewees were divided into flood victims and non- flood victims. The purpose of this division was to record the different perceptions of these two categories of people regarding floods. It was discovered, among others, that people's perceptions tend to influence their attitudes towards relocation. Sixty eight percent of the people interviewed foresaw future flooding, twenty four percent did not while the remaining eight percent were not sure. Furthermore, it was discovered that seventy two percent were in favour of resettlement while the remaining twenty eight percent were not. On the basis of these findings, recommendations such as resettlement of those living on the floodplains and education of the public about the dangers associated with floodplain settlement are made. Finally, it is important for the responsible authorities to note that in order to address the problems associated with current forms of floodplain ·development and land use, there is a need to adhere to the following fundamental principles: (a) Both the causes and consequences of the problem must be addressed, (b) If the fundamental causes- poverty, ignorance, landlessness, lack of commitment - are ignored, any attempts to address the consequences will fail, ( c) If the consequences are ignored the risk to life and livelihoods will continue in the short term and the economy of the country will be compromised with every flood event.Item Patterns and economic impacts of livestock predation in rural communities bordering Makgadikgadi Pans National Park in Botswana.(1997) Dikobe, Leonard Mogopodi.; Bell, Richard H. V.; Darroch, Mark Andrew Gower.Northern Botswana's rural agricultural settlements bordering national parks and game reserves. In two study areas (Khumaga and Gweta, bordering Makgadikgadi Pans National Park), spatial, temporal and prey-type patterns of livestock predation were assessed. Cattle, goats, horses, donkeys and sheep were the key livestock types. Lion, leopard, cheetah, wild dog, black-backed jackal, spotted hyena and the Nile crocodile (occurring only in Khumaga) were the key predators. Oral interviews with farmers in these villages provided insights into the patterns and impacts of livestock predation on rural economies. Khumaga's livestock predation scenario is dominated by lion predation on cattle, goats and donkeys, leopard predation on small stock and calves, and crocodile on goats. Wet season predation rates were higher than dry seasons', except for spotted hyena, black-backed jackal and leopard. Leopard and black-backed jackal are dominant small stock predators in Gweta. lion are the main cattle and donkey predators (though at lower frequencies). Dry season predation rates are higher. Farmers who own more livestock appear to lose more Northern Botswana's rural agricultural settlements bordering national parks and game reserves. In two study areas (Khumaga and Gweta, bordering Makgadikgadi Pans National Park), spatial, temporal and prey-type patterns of livestock predation were assessed. Cattle, goats, horses, donkeys and sheep were the key livestock types. Lion, leopard, cheetah, wild dog, black-backed jackal, spotted hyena and the Nile crocodile (occurring only in Khumaga) were the key predators. Oral interviews with farmers in these villages provided insights into the patterns and impacts of livestock predation on rural economies. Khumaga's livestock predation scenario is dominated by lion predation on cattle, goats and donkeys, leopard predation on small stock and calves, and crocodile on goats. Wet season predation rates were higher than dry seasons', except for spotted hyena, black-backed jackal and leopard. Leopard and black-backed jackal are dominant small stock predators in Gweta. lion are the main cattle and donkey predators (though at lower frequencies). Dry season predation rates are higher. Farmers who own more livestock appear to lose more cattle than those who own few. Gweta contrasts with Khumaga, having livestock predation highest during dry seasons, less reduction in livestock sales and a lower value of pending compensation claims. These predation patterns synchronise with movements of zebra and wildebeest to and from the Boteti river. Losses of livestock affect the utility derived from livestock and monetary gains from direct sales. Costs due to loss of biodiversity, though not quantified, add to those borne by the State through predator control. Both the State and the farmers loose. These losses reduce the incentives of the latter to conserve species that contribute reduction in their returns. The issue of State expenditure on predator control illustrates the possible need for re-direction of such funds into farmer-based predator control, much as an integral part of the current southern African trend of community-based natural resource management. Key words: livestock predation, predator control, economics, conservation, Botswana.Item The Primary School Nutrition Programme (PSNP) : assessing the allocation of funding in KwaZulu Natal, 1995/96.(1997) Mabuza, Lindiwe Olivia Khumbuzile.; Fincham, Robert John.The Government of National Unity's (GNU) desire to eliminate socio-economic imbalances inherited from the apartheid era resulted in the creation ofthe Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) which outlines principles and strategies for development in key areas. One such area is nutrition; in this regard President Mandela enacted the Primary School Nutrition Programme (PSNP) to provide one third of the minimum daily food intake for primary school children, where the need existed. The PSNP was launched on the 1st of September 1994 following the announcement of the start of the programme by the President in his State of the Nation Address on 24 May 1994. Prior to the establishment of the PSNP, the National Nutrition and Social Development Programme (NNSDP) was addressing malnutrition, targeting pre-school children and pregnant and nursing mothers. Initiated without a carefully planned strategy and clearly defined roles for the national and provincial offices, the NNSDP and its successor, the PSNP were, and remain, far from successful. In 1996 the Health Systems Trust (HST) and the Department of Health (DoH) held a workshop intended to build a framework for evaluating the PSNP. The evaluation of the PSNP was prompted by the fact that direct nutrition interventions in South Africa account for about 7% of the public health budget which in monetary terms is a considerable amount. It remains dubious whether this money is being spent efficiently and appropriately. Further, the evaluation of the programme is a result of severe criticism from all fronts of society as fraud has become apparent in the various government departments within the provinces. In KwaZulu Natal, extensive fraud has occurred, where cases of non-existent schools and teachers have, for example, been discovered on the list of beneficiaries of the PSNP. The aim of this study is to form a component of the HST and DoH evaluation of the PSNP through investigating how the allocation of funding has been conducted in KwaZulu Natal, and, if this is found to be inappropriate, to provide recommendations for improved allocation . of funds. To find out more about allocation procedures in KwaZulu Natal, key informants from the Department of Health were interviewed and their responses were analysed to expose problems with the targeting and allocation of funding at the various levels of government. Further, data obtained from the KwaZulu Natal Department of Health in Durban were analysed using a sample taken from the final financial quarter ofthe year 1995/96. These data showed the amount of PSNP funds advanced to ,each school compared with the amount of funding which was accounted for, as per the procedures for the implementation of the programme. Judging from the results obtained, the use of allocated funds for the PSNP in KwaZulu Natal has not been successful in 80% of cases in the ten Magisterial Districts assessed. In educational terms, there may be a role for a programme such as the PSNP - providing pupils with enough food to enable them to be more alert and active in the school environment whereas in nutritional terms, this appears to be less the case. Improving nutrition status is much more feasible when programmes are targeted at the very young and pre-school children. Lack of targeting in KwaZulu Natal has contributed to limited success of the PSNP as a nutrition tool. In the light of the evaluation undertaken in this study, it is proposed that targeting younger, pre-school children is an attractive alternative for future nutrition-based interventions and more development-based approaches, rather than the "food hand-outs" which appear to characterise the PSNP.Item A suitability assessment of farms for inclusion in a UNESCO-approved biosphere reserve : the case of the Itala Biosphere Reserve, KwaZulu-Natal.(1997) Moffat, Andrew John.; Granger, James Edmund.; Klug, John R.; Ahmed, Fethi B.This project describes and evaluates a method of assessing the suitability of 161 farms for inclusion in a biosphere reserve. Farms were chosen as a basic study unit over more ecologically based units because the decision to participate in the biosphere reserve rests with the landowner. The study area is located in northern KwaZulu-Natal, between Hlobane, near Vryheid, and the Itala Nature Reserve where local landowners are exploring the possibility of establishing a biosphere reserve. A brief review of the natural, social and economic contexts is given in order to identify local dynamics relevant to the establishment of a biosphere reserve. Farm suitability for inclusion was assessed with respect to its capability to fulfil the three main roles of a biosphere reserve as defined by the Man and Biosphere Programme of UNESCO. These are conservation, sustainable development and research. Ten factors were identified to determine farm suitability: vegetation, fauna and soil conservation, present land use, agricultural potential, tourism potential, education, settlement density and location. These were prioritised using the Analytical Hierarchy Process according to their impact on the main roles of the biosphere reserve.Each farm was given a factor score according to the expression of that factor on that farm. Overall farm suitability was taken as the sum of the weighted factor scores. The final scores for each farm were grouped into suitability classes and these were mapped. This map was then used to make recommendations on which farms should be considered for inclusion in the reserve. This method of assessing farm suitability for inclusion in a biosphere reserve, involving scoring the factors determining suitability and prioritising these factors was evaluated with respect-to its efficiency in identifying suitable properties. This was achieved by comparing the results of the assessment with the suitability class of farms with known suitability. The conceptual approach to the assessment was reviewed against published guidelines for integrated regional planning and rational resource planning. The accuracy of the project method in correctly identifying suitable farms was assessed against two other simplified methods of assessment, involving no weighting between factors, and a limited number of factors. Based on these analyses, conclusions have been drawn as to the strengths and weaknesses of both the method of farm assessment and the method of evaluation itself Recommendations were made for further research into and development of methods of assessing farm suitability for biosphere reserves. A procedure for the establishment of the proposed Itala Biosphere Reserve was suggested.Item Economic valuation of protected areas : the Umgeni Valley Nature Reserve case study.(1998) Razafindralambo, Ramy.; Oldham, George W.Umgeni Valley Nature Reserve as a natural area preserved from the more disruptive forms of economic activity, provides a multitude of benefits classified as either on-site use values or non-use values . This research addressed the problem of estimating the recreation use value of Umgeni Valley Nature Reserve. Two methodologies for valuing non-market benefits, the travel cost and contingent valuation methods are applied to evaluate the economic value of the reserve . The study reviews recent literature and highlights particular methodological issues characteristic of these techniques. The data from an on-site survey in the area permitted a description of visitors' socioeconomic characteristics and their trip patterns. Visitor attitudes, both to the recreational activities in Umgeni Valley Nature Reserve and to the proposals for the improvements of recreation provision were identified. Travel cost method results showed significant statistical relationships between number of trips, travel costs and socioeconomic variables. The consumer surplus value was estimated to be R95 800 in 1998. The contingent valuation method produced a true annual willingness-to-pay of R66 336 for entrance fees expressed by day visitors. The analysis of data from overnight visitors in the cottages revealed that 63 % of visitors were willing to pay up to R75 per person per night. Finally, the research emphasized the importance and the potential use of economic value in assisting the development of economically sustainable policies for the provision of recreation. Whilst Umgeni Valley Nature Reserve is under no immediate threat, having an indication of the economic value of recreational opportunities within the reserve will aid future planning and decision-making.Item Solid waste management in low and high income residential areas of Maseru : a comparative study of Maseru West and Seapoint.(1998) Seholoholo, Masechaba.; Slade, D. Graeme B.; Selinyane, N.Waste management has received very little attention in Lesotho' s Development Planning. Lack of environmental policy and environmental framework law has resulted in waste being illegally dumped. Inadequate services in the country, coupled with increasing population in the urban areas due to rural-urban migration, has led to litter being a serious environmental problem in the whole country, especially in the urban areas. This study aims to analyse the defects of the waste management strategies in Maseru by investigating the waste management systems employed in two residential areas of different income levels. In addition, this thesis attempts to evaluate the impact of socioeconomic and educational factors on solid waste management practices in Maseru. An investigation into trends or similarities in the services rendered by the Maseru City Council was carried out and compared with the literature reviewed. A survey was conducted as two case studies, mainly to assess the present coverage and the standard of refuse generation, collection and disposal service. Waste was collected from the two study areas and compared in terms of the type and amount of waste. generated. The major factors influencing waste generation were found to be the gender and educational level of the household head, income level of the household and the household size. These were found to be proportional to waste generation and inter-related. In this regard, that families headed by men were found to have higher incomes than those headed by women and were found to produce more waste. Furthermore, in households where the household head had attained a higher level of education, income levels increased, there was a concomitant increase in waste generation. In general, high income residential areas generated more waste than low income residential areas. Large families use more money and consume more food than small families, thus generate more waste. The major component of waste was largely paper and plastic, but glass, cans and organic materials were also recorded. In general, waste management in Maseru (Lesotho) was found to be very poor because of lack of policy and contradicting and scattered sectoral laws dealing with waste management, lack of urban planning and infrastructure. More importantly, waive of laws relating to waste has resulted in land degradation due to illegal dumping and littering.Item Local knowledge of natural resources in rural Namibia : a case study of Salambala Conservancy in eastern Caprivi.(1998) Mosimane, Alfons Wabahe.; Marcus, Tessa.Historically, local communities have been excluded from the managemcnt of natural resources and their knowledge about their social and physical environment has been ignored and disregarded. The aim of this is study is to assess whether local knowledge is a significant resource and arbitrates in the management of natural resources in rural Namibia. The study looks at the place and use of local knowledge in governmental and non-governmental organisations, especially in their rural development programmes. It also examines local knowledge in institutional management of natural resources. Lastly, the study assesses the significance of local knowledge in different land use systems. The study found that local knowledge is widely acknowledged as an important source of information and a useful part of development. However, this recognition is often not translated into practice. The knowledge system is not recorded and available to people who are not members of the community, which limits the contribution it can make to natural resource management and rural development. The study shows that local communities have a vast knowledge of the social and physical environlnent in which they live. Rural development organisations can make better contributions to rural communities by learning from them and using their accumulated knowledge and experience in their programmes. The recommendations made in the study will help rural development practitioners, researchers, academics and agricultural extension officials to realise that local knowledge is a resource which can be used to the benefit of the community and the environment.Item The role of leadership in the structure and functioning of community based natural resource management organizations : a Zimbabwean case study.(1998) Dimbi, Lilian Rungano.; Breen, Charles Mackie.The objective of the Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) initiative is to enhance biodi versity conservation through approaches which balance the needs of local communities reliant upon natural resources, with national and international needs in conservation. This is achieved by addressing the imbalances in the distribution of costs and benefits in natural resource man~gement (NRM). So those who live with natural resources should receive benefits for their effort in conservation. Once there is a benefit stream associated with a resource, communities can then be involved in NRM as a long term strategy. In this way sustainable use of resources is promoted. For successful CBNRM, there has to be a vehicle for eliciting community participation and involvement through planning and decision making. In a communal property management regime, there exist sanctions and rewards for conserving/managing the resource. For community management to be successful there has to be an authority which protects the local rights and ensures that duties are fulfilled . This authority has to be local and national. Within the national context, the authority defining rights and duties in NRM is determined by the institutional framework in which the CBNRM initiative operates. At the community level, community leadership institutions are the authority protecting the rights and enforcing duties. Local leadership gains legitimacy from the wider institutional structures and from the community. How community leadership functions determines largely the structure and functioning of the CBNRM initiative locally. The case study of Kanyurira Ward, a community involved in a CBNRM initiative, namely CAMPFIRE in Zimbabwe, attempts to find out the role of leadership within the evolving institutional structures in shaping the functioning and structuring of the initiative. Analysis of the historical progression of leadership within the community and the community perceptions on leadership selection, monitoring and evaluation, legitimacy and the distribution ofcosts and benefits between the community and the leadership were used to identify the salient factors for effective and efficient local leadership in CBNRM. 11 The study showed that local leadership effectiveness and community expectations of leaders influence performance based on understanding of the leadership role and objectives of the CBNRM initiative. The environments in which CBNRM programmes operate have forced the community to change its leadership selection and monitoring criteria over time. External agencies have their own role expectations for local leaders based on their organizational goals and objectives. These different leadership role expectations place undue pressure on leaders. Community perceptions on cost -benefit distribution within CBNRM programmes affect the sustainability of the programme as they can be an incentive or disincentives to follow NRM rules. Changes in the institutional structures within the communities due to government policies have resulted in overlaps and conflicts in roles of traditional and modem political leadership. Though traditional leadership does not have formal legitimation, it has community acceptance and has persisted over the years. Approaches within CBNRM, need to be evaluated within the community's and leaders world view so that they can address any imbalances and mismatches in role, status and benefit expectations before negating on the CBNRM objective of community participation with benefits for sustainable NRM and development.Item A critical evaluation of tourism in Ximba, KwaZulu-Natal.(1998) Airey, Luclaire Anne.; Lawrence, Ralph Bruce.; Grant, Linda.The recent incorporation of Ximba into a metro boundary (the Outer West substructure of Durban, KwaZulu-Natal) has highlighted the imbalances between rural and urban communities and created the need to redress them. Currently, the main issues facing the AmaXimba are economic generation and job creation. Solutions are possible through development of the industrial, residential, agricultural and/or tourism sectors. Recourse to analysis of the physical environment, as well as stakeholders and their interactions, informs the study and provides the means ofdetermining the best practical developmental option for Ximba. The suggestion is made that none ofthe sectors by themselves are viable and all must be developed in conjunction with each other. As there is a greater inherent tourism potential, the focus ofthe study shifts to the tourism milieu in Ximba. Tourism issues revolve around what type of tourism Ximba should develop as well as the best developmental pathway to pursue. Options open to Ximba include independent development, or development in conjunction with neighbouring areas. Thus, the focus ofthe study broadens to explore the wider tourism milieu in the Outer West, in particular the RI03 (Botha's Hill to Cato Ridge) route. The current status oftourism in the two areas is assessed as is the potential impact from future development projects and commonalities between the two areas are determined. Stakeholder visions provide the means for determining possible constraints to, and considerations for, tourism development. These include attempts to determine the current economic climate prevailing along the RI03; analysis ofthe crime situation and the media's influences thereon; and physical constraints, particularly water quality. Results indicate that a variable economic climate prevails, crime is a problem within the area and factors aggravating the crime perception are considered. Water quality ofthe Msunduzi is not suitable for recreational tourism. Issues raised for consideration included determining developmental routes that could be imposed on the Outer West from a higher authority, the requirements for nature-based tourism incorporating cultural tourism, tour operators' requirements, community characteristics and factors surrounding the bed and breakfast industry. Ideas for the development of a combined and expanded tourism route are provided. An analysis ofthe strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and 11 threats (SWOT) of the tourism milieu highlights factors to be concentrated on and suggestions are made for driving tourism in the combined XimbaIRI03 milieu. The study concludes by considering key factors necessary for devising tourism policy in Ximba, as well as possible means of implementation. Consideration is also given to tourism as an agent of change.Item Revisiting community based natural resource management : a case study of the Tchuma Tchato project in Tete Province, Mozambique.(1998) Maughan Brown, Anthony Michael.; Breen, Charles Mackie.Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) is a paradigm that has emerged in response to the perceived failure of past approaches to conservation and development. CBNRM is intended to deliver socio-economic development to impoverished rural communities, who manage natural resources, and harness the utility of these resources as a vehicle for development. This dissertation revisits the concept of CBNRM, using the Tchuma Tchato project at Bawa, Tete Province, Mozambique as a case study. A conceptual framework for a CBNRM project intervention is developed and used to analyse the Tchuma Tchato project. The role of external agents, and particularly the lead institution, is vital to a project intervention. It is shown that external agents need to be well organised, and they need to interact effectively as a team. External agents need to have the financial and human capacity, and an understanding of CBNRM to play a constructive and effective role in a time-bound project intervention. A project intervention must evolve from a top-down intervention into an autonomous CBNRM programme, that is sustainable, and that can contribute to a process of sustainable development and conservation after the end of a project life. In order to realise this, a project intervention must be rigorously planned and designed. This formulation is critical to the subsequent implementation and operation of a project. It is vital that a CBNRM addresses the key characteristics of CBNRM, and that in doing so, it delivers social, economic and environmental development to the targeted community. Analysis of the Tchuma Tchato project at Bawa has elucidated that the project is floundering. Application of the conceptual framework to Tchuma Tchato has established causes for this. The primary cause is a weakness in the roles played by the lead institution and external agents. The project was not rigorously formulated. The project has not been effectively managed. The project has failed to address the key characteristics of CBNRM, and it is not contributing to a process of sustainable development. This analysis has facilitated the identification of remedial actions for Tchuma Tchato at Bawa, and recommendations for future CBNRM projects have been made.Item Utrecht : a way forward.(1998) Mungaroo, Sunil.; Fincham, Robert John.; Edgecombe, D. Ruth.; Smith, K. K.South Africa's industrialisation gave rise to the establishment of many small towns in the vicinity of mineral deposits. Today many of these small towns face economic decline as these resources become exhausted. These small towns, however, can play an important role in the new South Africa. With the delivery of services in urban areas coming under more pressure, the lack of infrastructure and services has consequently led to many people being without services. Development in small towns can help reduce the pressure placed on big cities. This has resulted in environmental degradation occurring in urban areas. At the same time one should not run the risk of creating environmental degradation through development initiatives in these small towns. A procedure needs to be put in place that ensures environmental considerations are taken into account in development proposals. Many of these small mining towns have existing facilities that can be utilised for development. These existing facilities should be used instead of using development funds to build such facilities. This case study focuses on the town of Utrecht in north western Kwazulu-Natal, where the town is heavily dependent on Welgedacht Exploration, a coal mine that is the chief employer in the town. Welgedacht faces closure within the next few years and this study attempts to make suggestions on a way forward for this town after closure of the mine. The study explores the possibility of using the Integrated Environmental Management (IEM) procedure as a means to initiate development proposals. The study found that IEM can be an effective tool with regard to small town development, since through this process, appropriate sustainable development initiatives can be identified. IEM is appropriate as it makes provision for:- • Environmental considerations, • Ensures community participation, and • Enforces legal compliance thus making it an effective tool in development.