Masters Degrees (Food Security)

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Analysis of the Southern African development community national vulnerability assessment committees (SADC NVACs) : towards the establishment of an effective and efficient South African vulnerability assessment committee (SAVAC).
(2014) Masechaba, Ramphoko Moipone.; Kolanisi, Unathi.; Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.
Vulnerability assessment and analysis is an important part of food security analysis. In Southern African Development Community, assessment is through the (NVACs) National Vulnerability Assessment Committees. However there is no framework informing effectiveness and efficiency. The study aimed at determining the essential elements of effectiveness and efficiency in NVACs. A model framework for analysing effectiveness and efficiency of NVACs was developed. Secondary data was then collected in NVACs supplementing it with key informant interviews. Matrices were developed from the model framework to assign scores for NVACs’ effectiveness and efficiency using the robot system. This was followed by SWOT analysis. The study revealed that all NVACs are effective but 89% are highly effective. On the contrary, 67% NVACs proved efficient with 22% highly efficient. The NVACs had more weaknesses than strengths, opportunities nor threats. Based on the study’s definition of effectiveness and efficiency, it was concluded that NVACs’ problems are mostly internal. Emphasis on data management, regular monitoring and evaluations and NVACs’ inclusion in government’s budget were recommended. In addition, South African NVAC framework to effectively and efficiently assess vulnerability was developed and recommended.
Assessment and determinants of household food security status in the Umzumbe local municipality, KwaZulu-Natal.
(2023) Zabuloni, Byamungu Lincoln.; Mudhara, Maxwell.; Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.
Although South Africa is a nationally food-secure country, this is not the case at household and individual levels, where food insecurity is unacceptably high, particularly in rural areas, where many households struggle to meet their own food needs. In order to address the food insecurity and poverty challenges in the rural areas of South Africa, the Department of Agriculture has been promoting home and community garden programmes to increase the food production of poor and vulnerable rural households. This study aimed to assess the level of participation of households in the food garden programmes and the factors affecting their access to them. In addition, the study evaluated the effect of these two programmes on the household’s food security status and their determinants in the uMzumbe Local Municipality. As home and community garden programmes have been widely implemented in all the municipality wards, this study applied a simple random sampling method, in order to give all the wards a chance of being selected. The purposive sampling method was used to select the village samples from the wards, in which both the home and community garden programmes have been implemented. In order to collect data, a structured questionnaire was administered directly to 223 household respondents out of 1792 households within three sampled wards. The results of the study showed that the level of participation of the households in the food gardens implemented was very low (23.8%). About 13%, 10.3% and 0.45% of respondents participated in home garden, community garden, and a combination of community and home garden programmes, respectively. The Logistic model results indicated that factors, such as livestock ownership (p=0.067) and extension services (p=001), positively influenced the participation of households in the community garden programme, while the farm size (p=0.008), the purpose of farming (p=0.068) and the total income negatively affected their participation. In contrast, the farm size (p=0.026), the purpose of farming (p=091) and the extension services (p=0.001) positively affected the participation of farmers in home garden programme. The results revealed that both programmes were ineffective for improving the food security status of households in the uMzumbe area. Their food security status was positively impacted by the total income (p=0.001), extension services (p=0.04), credit access (p=0.067), age, farm size (p=0.024) and education level (p=0.091), whereas it was negatively influenced by the household size (p=0.001), as well as the size of the home gardens (p=0.046) and community gardens (p=0.032). The study indicated that the implementation of the home and community garden programmes was not enough, in and of itself, for improving the food security status of those living in the uMzumbe area. Therefore, it is recommended that factors, such as income generation, credit access, educational and extension services, should be considered for improving the participation in, and effectiveness of, the home and community garden programmes, and for improving the food security status of residents in the uMzumbe Local Municipality. Key words: home garden, community garden, uMzumbe Municipality and food security
An assessment of agricultural skills and their effect on agricultural productivity and household food security : a case of Tugela ferry irrigation scheme in KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa.
(2013) Maziya, Mbongeni.; Mudhara, Maxwell.; Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.
Agriculture is a crucial sector of the economy in many developing countries as it significantly contributes to domestic production and hence household food security. Lack of technical and managerial skills have been cited as the main reasons for poor performance among smallholder farmers. This study assessed the contribution of agricultural skills and knowledge to agricultural productivity, on one hand, and household food security, on the other hand. By identifying agricultural skills that are critical to agricultural productivity, the study seeks to find out ways of improving the level of competence in farmers‟ agricultural skills, hence, food security. Data was collected from a random sample of 250 smallholder farmers (67% women) in the Tugela Ferry irrigation scheme and Machunwini area in Msinga, KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa. A structured questionnaire was administered through face-to-face interviews for data collection. Descriptive statistics were used to present the results of the relationship between gender, age, level of education, access to extension services and agricultural skills and knowledge. Descriptive statistics were also used to present the results of the relationship between agricultural skills and knowledge, and agricultural productivity. The results of the descriptive statistics show that age of household head, gender, level of education and access to extension services had a significant effect on the level of competence in agricultural skills. It was also observed that agricultural skills and knowledge significantly affected agricultural productivity and household food security. The Ordinary Least Squares regression model was used to determine maize productivity and its results showed that competency in determining planting depth, irrigation scheduling and frequency, education level, farming practice and farming experience had a significant effect on maize productivity. Gender, education level, farming practice, competency in determining planting depth and nutrient deficiency in crops, goat ownership and total income had a significant effect on household food security. These findings of the regression models suggest that adjustment of the respective significant variables can influence agricultural productivity and household food security. In view of the research findings, the study identified weaknesses in the provision of extension services. Farmers experienced few extension visits and the study recommends that extension services be improved by increasing the number and effectiveness of extension agents in rural areas.
Assessment of communal land rights for smallholder farmers access to markets in South Africa : implications on gender.
(2017) Mothae, Thapelo.; Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.
Most African countries have embarked on improving agriculture, food security and reducing hunger through the support and involvement of smallholder farmers in the food production. Smallholder farmers have been key custodians of most African nations food and nutrition security, yet they are challenged by several factors including lack of access to land, access to credit and access to formal markets. Women smallholder farmers are the most affected due to the patrilineal nature of communal land allocation in most rural societies. Smallholder agriculture can provide a route out of poverty only if it is productive, commercially oriented and well linked to formal markets. Women have over the years relied on land based activities for their livelihoods and survival and food security however, they have always been marginalised in the allocation, control and command over land as a property. Several studies indicate that women perform most of the agricultural activities mainly for their households’ food security and may produce a meagre surplus for sale in the informal markets. Market access for rural smallholder farmers has been actively promoted to catalyse sustainable rural livelihood development. However, without addressing the land access and gender specific issues that rural smallholder women farmers face in accessing markets, most initiatives aimed at improving smallholder farmer livelihoods and their food security may fail to achieve their sole purpose. Culturally stipulated roles of women’s in the household and in smallholder agriculture have adverse effects on household food security due to the resultant workload burden and reduced market participation by smallholder farmers. Smallholder women farmers have to travel long distances with their meagre produce to access markets. This study assessed the relationship between gender and communal land access and how they collectively impact smallholder farmers’ access to markets. The specific objectives of the study were to determine relationships between gender and communal land access, to identify the factors affecting smallholder farmers to access agriculture markets and to determine how land access enhances smallholder farmers’ access to markets. A purposive sample of 135 households was selected in Appelsbosch, KwaZulu-Natal province in South Africa. The mixed methods approach of research made up of structured questionnaires, together with focus group discussions and observation was employed. Qualitative data from the focus group discussions and open-ended questions was analysed for common themes using content analysis. The data was then subjected to descriptive statistical analysis using SPSS. Statistically significant differences were observed between gender and access to land, access of land and the owner of the land (p<0.05). The results further indicated that women land rights were mostly secondary and land access was closely linked to the existence of a relationship with male relatives, largely through marital ties. The study concluded that smallholder farmers faced numerous challenges in terms of accessing land and markets. From these results, the study recommends more equitable measures for secure land rights for women farmers as individuals based on need, improvement in extension services and creation of stable markets and market access support for smallholder farmers to ensure sustainable livelihoods and food security.
Assessment of entrepreneurial risk and water quality in urban agriculture.
(2022) Ndwalane, Sinethemba Zakhona.; Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.; Ojo, Temitope Oluwaseun.
Urban agriculture (UA) serves diverse purposes in various societies. However, there are many difficulties that urban farmers must overcome in UA, as it is a risky industry like any other sector. The limited availability of natural resources such as land and water, present production risk for the farmers as they are subjected to production on small areas of land available. The practice of agricultural production further depletes the water supplies that are accessible. Urbanization is predicted to lead to a decline in water quantity and quality because agriculture uses a big portion of the water supply and population increase. Measures, such as water resource management, drip irrigation, and wastewater re-use, are taken to manage the deterioration of water quality, as they affect how money and decisions are made. Factors such as production, pricing (market), and human, financial, and institutional risk are all risk concerns for farmers as they affect their "entrepreneurial spirit" and willingness to take on any risk. Over the years, research has addressed risk variables that influence smallholder and commercial farmers in rural regions; however, there has been little research on the risk factors that affect entrepreneurship in UA. Furthermore, the presence of risk in agriculture also presents food and nutrition insecurity as farmers tend to be risk averse. The study aimed to evaluate the risk factors on decisions making by urban farmers and the effects on income generation, while also reviewing the literature on the water policies on access, use and quality, and the farmer’s perception of the use of WW in UA and the role of UA in food and nutrition security. The study’s methodology was a mixed-method approach, employing both qualitative and quantitative data collection and data analysis methods. A multistage sampling technique was used to randomly select 78 urban households. The sample included 48 urban farmers and 30 non-urban respondents who were purposefully selected to be part of the study. The selection was complimented through a structured questionnaire survey complemented by observations and focus group discussions. For data analysis of the qualitative and quantitative results, the study made use of a thematic and content analysis of the policies; the study also employed Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and logistic regression analysis of the results. This study employed a review of literature on the policies in place that govern water access, use and quality in South Africa. The socio-demographic results from the study show that the respondents were mostly females; with the mean age of 58, and only a few of the respondents were classified as youth between the ages 18-40. The findings revealed that there are policies in place that govern water access and use, and quality. However, the findings show that there are no policies that are specific to water access, use and quality in urban agriculture. Moreover, it was found that there are guidelines relating to water quality as urban farmers have been found to use WW due to the water shortages in cities. To cover the shortfall, the farmers, use other sources of water such as rainwater, river, dam and wastewater. The results on farmer perception revealed that the majority of the farmers were not open to using WW even though they were aware of its use in agriculture. The findings further revealed that the respondents are somewhat aware of the risk factors in UA and how they impact their income generating capacity. It was found that factors such as age, education, water quality, entrepreneurial risk factors like (production risk and price risk) and psychological capital, were found to be statistically significant and have the potential to influence the risk factors of the respondents and subsequently increase urban agriculture participation ultimately leading to increased incomes. The study results also show that majority of the respondents were farming to ensure food and nutrition security at a household level due to food and economic hardships, while only a few of the participants were farming to sell at the market. Even with those who were selling at the market, they found that the costs outweighed the benefits and were somewhat not motivated. The study, therefore, concluded that farmers need more information on the safe use of WW in agriculture. There is also a need for the farmers to develop their risk awareness in UA, and how to better manage the risk. Enhanced risk management strategies will ensure continued income generation and also invoke the “entrepreneurial spirit” necessary to become a successful entrepreneur. The study further concludes that youth involvement in UA is essential as the majority of the participants were elderly, who are mostly subsistent farmers, while young farmers weren’t motivated enough to go into agriculture. Key words: urban agriculture, entrepreneurial risk, water polices, water quality, food security, principal component analysis, entrepreneurship, logit regression.
The assessment of the role of social assets in building climate change adaptation : implications for household food security and livelihoods.
(2017) Nthabeleng, Tamako.; Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.
Rural livelihoods are diverse and dynamic, often aimed at managing risk, reducing vulnerability and enhancing food security. In South Africa, rural households pursue different livelihood strategies based on available capital. Household asset endowment consists of physical capital (land, equipment, cattle, etc.), human capital (years of schooling and work experience) and social capital (membership of associations). A household combines these capitals to engage in productive activities. However, climate change remains a threat worldwide. Hence, the household engages in several activities and strategies to earn a living. Climate change affects natural capitals, such as water and land, on which certain livelihoods depend directly. South Africa is predominantly vulnerable to climate change because of its high dependence on climate-sensitive economic sectors: agriculture, fisheries, forestry, and mining. Agriculture is a core sector that ensures food security and provides households with food, employment and other components of livelihood. Smallholder farmers are highly affected by climate change. Thus, adaptation and coping strategies are essential for building resilience. This study seeks to assess the role of social capital, in climate change adaptation of smallholder farmers in Appelsbosch, to improve their food security and livelihoods. The study was conducted in Appelsbosch, under uMshwathi local municipality in Kwa-Zulu Natal province. Random sampling was used to select a sample of 135 active and long-term smallholder farmers. The participants were interviewed using questionnaires and through focus group discussions. The key informant interviews were held with group representatives and extension officers to gather the in-depth of social capital structure among the farmers and its uses to cope and adaptation strategies against climate change. A Chi-square test was used to analyse the relationships between social capital dimensions, adaptation and coping strategies against climate change. More relationships were tested between social capital and coping strategies used by smallholder farmers to cope with food insecurity. The chi-square test indicated that the relationship between the social group and food insecurity coping strategies employed by the farmer were statistically significant at the 5 % level. Furthermore, the Chi-square test revealed a significant relationship between the social capital and the strategies employed by the household, such as avoiding & limiting soil erosion and water harvesting strategies. Furthermore, there was a significant relationship at the 5% level between the social capital, crop choice and planting schedules. The study revealed that in Appelsbosch, social capital acts as a conduit for financial transfers and provides information about new skills. An effective system facilitates cooperation among farmers and the sharing of the costs and benefits of adaptation. Effective information dissemination is important. However, participation in these social groups is challenged by factors such as finances, lack of trust and poor leadership among farmers. The results showed that there are more respondents that are highly engaged in farmers’ groups only, compared to those engaged in farmer’s groups and burial societies or grocery stokvels simultaneously. Many explained that this behaviour is a result of members’ dependence on social grants or farm harvests, as their livelihood strategy. Thus, the insufficient monthly income restricts their participation in other kinds of social groups. Therefore, they focus on farming, to sustain their livelihood and food security.
Collective farming : elements constituting an effective agricultural co-operative, the case of three co-operatives in the Umgungundlovu district.
(2010) Dlamini, Thulile Rejoice.; Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.
Collective smallholder farming has been widely promoted as a vehicle for smallholder agricultural development in South Africa. As a result, agricultural co-operative registrations in South Africa are increasing. However, research suggests that South African co-operatives have generally not been effective, successful and functional. This study investigated the elements constituting an effective and functional primary agricultural co-operative among three smallholder agricultural co-operatives. It is expected that identification of these elements may enable institutions that offer support to co-operatives make better decisions to improve smallholder farming through primary agricultural co-operatives. Understanding of these elements could inform the efforts for members of co-operatives to achieve their set objectives and thus improve smallholder agriculture profitability. Three rural agricultural co-operatives in the Local Municipalities of Mooi-Mpofana, Mkhambathini, and Richmond in the Umgungundlovu District Municipality were purposively selected for the study because they were registered agricultural co-operatives. Inyamvubu Co-operative (from Mooi-Mpofana) was larger in membership, and well established compared to Umphumela (from Mkhambathini) and Ingwe-Mndeni (from Richmond). The sample included the purposively selected members and non-members of agricultural co-operatives to explore the differences and provide insight to the knowledge, opinions and perceptions of collective farming. A framework for analysing the effectiveness of agricultural co-operatives was developed using literature of objectives of agricultural co-operatives, success factors of smallholder agriculture and organisational effectiveness. This framework was used to analyse the effectiveness of the three co-operatives. Focus group discussions, Force Field Analysis and a survey were used for data collection. The study revealed that the three co-operatives have clearly defined group objectives aligned to those set out by the South African government. The main identified objectives of farming for the three co-operatives included; creation of employment and income generating activities, improving access to funding, strengthening market access and strengthening human and community development. Activities carried out by the three co-operatives took advantage of opportunities in the value chain including production, marketing, and transportation of produce to markets. However, farmers’ activities were hampered by a number of constraints. Production capability of the three co-operatives was hampered by resource constraints such as lack of access to land, machinery and equipment, finances and information relevant to production. Marketing, transportation and financial management capability of the three co-operatives was hampered by poor networking skills, poor infrastructure and low literacy levels. Management capability in the three co-operatives was challenged by complex group dynamics characterised by conflict of opinions and issues related to free-rider, horizon, and portfolio problems. Low capability of the three co-operatives to mobilise resources, use the limited resources available and low capability to manage institutional arrangements rendered the co-operatives ineffective in achieving their set objectives. The study recommends strategies for ensuring the effectiveness of agricultural co-operatives. These include strategies for addressing internal and external issues affecting the co-operatives. Direct intervention from government was recommended to improve production through revising land allocation systems, improving extension services and strict monitoring of effective use of government resources provided to farmers. Government should improve access and training to relevant technologies to improve the processing and packaging capabilities of co-operatives. Marketing and management activities should be supported through provision of improved infrastructure and relevant training. Farmers themselves should consider pooling resources for market rental of crop land, engage in value added activities, and develop informed marketing programs and cost-effective distributing mechanisms. Farmers should elect an effective board of members that will ensure enforcement of agreements and constitution.
Environmental management of urban farming and water quality: implications for food security.
(2022) Mthuli, Nqobile Confidence.; Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.; Ojo, Temitope Oluwaseun.
Urban farming, in its small scale comprises of various production systems and practices that can lead to poor soil conditions, water pollution and the extension of climate change impacts. Moreover, smallholder farmers are in turn challenged by climate change impacts including heavy rainfall, high temperatures, hailstorms and pests exacerbated by the lack of knowledge, institutional support, governance framework, limited financial resources and technology. As a result, farmers are vulnerable to urban farming and environmental risks that affect the farmers’ food and nutrition security. On the other hand, if done well, urban farming (UF) can benefit the urban environment through flood water mitigation, water infiltration and greening of the environment, while improving food security. The study was conducted in the communities of Sobantu, Sweetwaters and Mpophomeni, in KwaZulu-Natal. This study employed a mixedmethods research approach, which combines quantitative and qualitative analysis. The quantitative approach used a survey questionnaire to elicit responses from 78 urban and periurban smallholder farmers who were purposefully selected to participate in the study. Focus group discussions and field observations were used to collect in-depth qualitative data about the challenges urban farmers faced in urban farming. Additionally, the logit regression model was used to identify factors that influence the farmers adoption of urban farming management practices. The study revealed that the majority of the farmers were faced with environmental problems including poor soil conditions, water quality and access problems and climate change impacts, of which had an impact on crop yield and farm profit. Furthermore, results showed that 69.2% of farmers were aware of the environmental implications of urban farming. However, it was found that due to the farmers limited financial resources, farmers identified urban farming mainly as a source of income and a strategy to obtain extra food and less for the benefit of the environment. The study found that market availability (p=0.003), training on soil management (p=0.0011) and access to credit (p=0.097) were significant factors in the adoption of urban farming practices. The study further revealed that the farmers adoption of urban farming and water quality management practices were challenged by socio-economic and institutional factors such as the lack of knowledge, farmer training, access to markets, access to credit and poor extension support. An environmental management framework was provided to address the challenges that hinder the smallholder farmers adoption of urban farming and water quality management practices.
Exploring farming systems and the role of agroecology in improving food security, productivity and market access for smallholder farmers.
(2016) Mkhize, Thobeka.; Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.
Most smallholder farming areas in developing countries including South Africa are inhabited by resource constrained farmers, many of whom lack appropriate technologies. The farmers have largely had little education and up to 80% of those involved in agriculture are women. Smallholder farmers in these areas engage in farming activities oriented at subsistence and/or selling of surplus as a survival strategy. Most farms in South Africa where smallholder farmers reside are found in poorly developed areas in former homeland areas presided over by traditional authorities. These areas are characterized by less productive soils and poor and erratic rainfall. These farmers face many challenges including water shortages and lack of irrigation. The land is exposed to increased land degradation, and often they lack finances and cannot afford basic inputs and implements for farming. As a result of these challenges, farmers’ food security is affected. This study examined the smallholder crop production systems in these areas and explored the potential role of agroecology as a strategy to enhance their food security and markets access. Exploring farming systems which smallholder employs is important for providing a useful framework within which to examine agricultural development strategies and interventions impacting smallholder farmers in South Africa. The research was conducted in KwaZulu-Natal, Swayimane area under uMshwathi Local Municipality which is located within the uMgungundlovu District Municipal area (29°25’S; 30°34’E). A sample of 80 smallholder farmers was purposively selected for the study. About 300 farmers in Swayimane practiced agroecology, 26% of those were interviewed for the study. The aimed to establish whether smallholder farmers applied agroecological principles or conventional farming. Primary data was collected using structured questionnaires and key informant interviews. Focus group discussions were also conducted to generate detailed information on which farming system was incorporated in their farms and whether agroecological principles can enhance productivity on their farms. The sample consisted of 64% women and 36% men. In terms of age, most participants 36.3% fell between the ages of 46-60. Also most of the farmers attended secondary school 63.7%. The results show that different types of farming systems were practiced in the area. Smallholder farmers were practicing conventional farming, organic farming with conventional farming and agroecological principles in farming. The farming systems practiced were mostly affected by shortages of water. Farmers were forced to diversify their crops to those which are drought resistant which affected their profits as there was no established market for such crops. In addition, their food security was affected as there was less diversity of crops produced as a result of the water shortages. In employing these production systems, findings revealed that smallholder farmers considered yields, economic benefits, social and environmental factors when evaluating different farming systems to use in their farms. Hence farmers diversified their farming system by cultivating drought tolerant crops. In terms of agroecology, farmers were aware that agroecology is not a relatively new concept in South Africa as these methods were also applied by their forefathers. However as much as farmers were aware and also applied agroecological concepts and principles to their farming practices, many still used industrial fertilizers in a large part of their farms and a few farmers used organic farming. Farmers acknowledged that some agroecological principles including organic farming were very helpful as they are environmentally friendly. Despite benefits of practising agroecological methods of farming, farmers were still somewhat reluctant to converting from using conventional to agroecological methods of farming because of the perceived difficulties associated with practicing some of the methods of agroecology. The most commonly mentioned disadvantages included low yields from producing food using organic fertilizers and lower profits made from selling such produce because the yields were much less compared to those produced conventionally. With regards to market access farmers argued that markets demand consistency and quality. Hence farmers were not selling food produced organically because of low yields and the longer time it takes to mature. Accessing markets also comes with lots of institutional and social challenges which farmers find it hard to deal with and resorted to selling in informal markets. However, such produce was regarded by farmers as being healthy and methods of producing were less harmful to the environment, hence some farmers allocated smaller land portions to produce organic food products for household consumption. Results also showed that training farmers in terms of using agroecology was important as those who have attended training were applying some of the methods in their farms. However, the trainings given to farmers did not yield the expected outcomes as farmers were still somewhat reluctant to changing their methods of farming. Hence as part of the recommendations for training smallholder farmers should be on practical on-farm training and should involve practical work. This type of on farm training could be more beneficial than sitting and listening in the training room. The training given should involve relevant stakeholder in the community including the Department of Agriculture. For the future, the research be expanded to include two study sites for comparison purposes, perhaps another province to see whether the results would be similar so that one can then give a reliable recommendations as to what really is the suitable farming methods for small farmers to employ.
Exploring food insecurity and socio-economic factors affecting academic performance : a case study of first year students on probation and at-risk of academic exclusion.
(2013) Gwacela, Mbalenhle.; Kolanisi, Unathi.; Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.
Since the democratic transition, South Africa has come a long way in paving a path that enables citizens to take advantage of education. Within universities, certain overlooked socio-economic and food security factors affect academic performance. The prevalence of food insecurity and factors affecting academic performance was investigated in the context of underperforming first year students. A mixed methodology was used where questionnaire, focus group discussions and key informant interviews were used to collect in depth information. The individual dietary diversity score (IDDS) and household food insecurity access scale (HFIAS) were used to assess the severity of food insecurity. Fifty-three per cent of students came from disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds characterised by unemployed parents and a high dependency on government grants. Twenty per cent of students regularly send remittances home, diverted from their scholarships/ bursaries and study loans thus leaving little for students to survive on. HFIAS results showed majority of students were food insecure as 80% experienced anxiety about food availability and accessibility and 54% had periods of complete inaccessibility to food. The majority of students proved to lack skills in grocery listing and financial management skills. Affordability and storage facility challenges led to students consuming nutritionally poor foods which compromised their health status. The IDDS showed 92% of students consumed bread, rice and maize; 70% ate foods with high levels of sugar, 71% ate foods made with oil, fat or butter; 66% ate meat; 58% ate vegetables, 50% ate fruits. This showed students’ diet is lacking in diversity as they resort to rich, energy-dense and cheap foods found at cheap prices. This robbed students of essential nutrients. Students who lived in university-owned residences were at higher risk of food insecurity. A significant proportion of study participants had substandard secondary school education. The shift in the Language of Learning and Teaching (LoLT) created challenges evident in lack of classroom engagement and lack of efficiency in communicating answers in tests and exams. Student accommodation and its proximity to learning facilities also affected performance negatively. The study therefore recommends, among other things, that university-owned residences reintroduce and/or subsidize dining halls to increase food accessibility, availability, quality, quantity and dietary diversity challenges. Food coupons could be introduced to low socio-economic students to purchase food from supporting grocery stores. Mandatory attendance of first year students to specialized programs organized by faculties and Student Counseling Centre to improve preparedness of students is needed. The UKZN LoLT policy needs to be implemented effectively so that the performance of second and third language speakers is improved. Translated material and academics who can speak the main local language is encouraged. The use code-switching techniques for the benefit of second and third language speakers are also encouraged when academics can use the main language.
Exploring the role of women in subsistence and smallholder farming : implications for horticultural crop value chain development in Swayimane and Sweetwaters.
(2014) Khumalo, Sinegugu.; Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.
This study is aimed at exploring and analysing the role of women in vegetable production value chain, related constraints encountered and exploring possible solutions thereof. The influence of gender in the value chain is explored given the known production role women play in subsistence and smallholder agriculture in order to understand the role of gender in production and marketing activities in the two chosen study areas: Swayimane and Sweetwaters. The study adopted both qualitative and quantitative methods to data collection. Survey questionnaires and focus group discussions were used for collecting data on the role played by women in subsistence and smallholder vegetable farming, the value chain, the nature and type of constraints faced and applicable solutions. Results from the survey questionnaire and focus group discussions indicated that women in both study areas play an important role in providing food for their families compared to their male counterparts but are faced with various gender based constraints such as access to assets crucial for production. They lack access to land, water, credit, infrastructure, strong extension service and other institutional support. Access to and provision of seeds, fertilizer and irrigation systems for increased production was another area identified as a constraint. However, in Swayimane, an indication on the involvement of both men and women was evident from the focus group discussion results. As indicated in the survey questionnaire results, various laws, both common and customary laws shaped the gendered differences associated with men’s and women’s roles in food production and access to assets, however, customary laws and practices were predominant in both the study areas. From both Swayimane and Sweetwaters, customary laws also influenced access to and ‘ownership’ of land. Land was either ‘owned’ and accessed more by men whilst women had access to or ‘ownership’ following certain parameters. Evident from focus group discussions and survey questionnaire results, participation in the market was gender driven. In Swayimane, more men participated in the market compared to women. However, in Sweetwaters participation from both parties was reported. With women found in the market, their role was to observe or sell and hand the money over to their husbands. Furthermore, with more men participating in marketing, results from the survey questionnaire indicated that ensuring household food security was difficult considering that men would use most of the money for their personal needs. In an attempt to address the constraints faced by women in subsistence and smallholder farming and thus improved access to markets, it is crucial that policy initiatives take into account gender inequality, its influence and the basis of these thereof. This implies that policy measures be directed at ensuring that men and women have equal access to production assets, more particularly land. However, achieving such, further requires scrutiny of the statutory and customary laws influencing gendered access to these assets and thus ensuring that these laws are gender sensitive. Furthermore, improving equal access to and participation in markets by both men and women implies that policy and programme planning focus on eliminating gender inequality and markets based constraints including high transaction costs, unequal access to proper infrastructure and transportation affecting women in particular. Policy initiatives should however be directed at ensuring that women have access to reduced transaction costs, proper infrastructure and transportation systems.
Factors influencing the level of vegetable value chain participation and implications on smallholder farming and food security in Swayimane, KwaZulu-Natal.
(2020) Ndlovu, Phiwokuhle Nqubeko.; Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.
In less developed countries, smallholder farming is important for development that could alleviate poverty, improve livelihoods, and contribute to household food security. However, Smallholder farming in South Africa is synonymous with a myriad of challenges. Key among them being access to markets. Most of the smallholder farmers in South Africa lack access to established commercial markets because of a lack of or limited access to information, assets, and institutions that can support smallholder farmers to produce for formal markets. This study aimed to introduce and test the Smallholder Horticulture Empowerment and Promotion (SHEP) model for vegetable value chain development in Swayimane, KwaZulu-Natal. The SHEP model was used to psychologically empower smallholder vegetable farmers to practice market-orientated agriculture while also acknowledging “Farming as a business”. The study aimed at identifying the existing food value chains in the study area along with the different linkages between value chain actors. The study further identified and explored the factors that influence the participation level in the vegetable value chain and implications on smallholder farming in Swayimane. Furthermore, the study explored the impact of participating in agricultural value chains on household food insecurity. Business linkages between farmers and market actors were identified through the practical implementation of the SHEP. The research approach was both community-based participatory and translational research because it involved training of smallholder farmers. The research adopted a mixed-methods methodology where both qualitative and quantitative approaches to collect data were used. The data was collected from a purposive sample of smallholder farmers using a survey questionnaire, baseline surveys, and a semi-structured focus group discussion questionnaire. The data were analyzed using descriptive analysis, value chain mapping, the nehurdle model, and an instrumental variable Poisson model. The value chain map showed that the coordination among value chain actors is strongly influenced by opportunities and constraints such as a lack of access to credit, lack of access to agricultural inputs, water in-security, infertile soils, lack of storage facilities, packaging, poor infrastructure, lack of market information, and price fluctuations Results from the nehurdle model showed that the age of the respondent, marital status, farm income, household size, cooperative, market information, radio, extension officer, and formal education significantly influenced the participation decisions of smallholder farmers in agricultural value chains. The results further showed that off-farm income, marital status, cooperatives, access to credit, access to irrigation scheme, radio, extension officer, contact with non-government organizations, and formal education significantly influenced the level of value chain participation of the smallholder farmers. The results from the instrumental variable Poisson model showed that Value chain participation, marital status, age of the household head, formal education, farm income, lease rent on land, access to NGOs, access to credit, access to agricultural agency, access to extension services and access to irrigation schemes were significant in influencing household food insecurity status of smallholder farmers. It can be concluded that the level of endowment in the physical, financial, and human resources influence participation in agricultural value chains. The farmer’s level of success and improved outcomes are influenced by access to markets. It is recommended that a market-led approach to farmer development be adopted to improve the commercial prospects of farmers while also enhancing food security. Policy should consider empowerment for market access through effective market- based farmer training and the creation of market and business linkages. This study also concluded that value chain participation had a positive impact on enhancing food security among smallholder farmers. The factors that influence the level of value chain participation among men and women farmers respectively in the study area were identified. Therefore, policymakers must take into consideration and understand the influence that these factors have before drawing policies for value chain development. Furthermore, the SHEP influenced the behavior of the farmers to focus on planting crops that were demanded by the market and to keep records while practice farming as a business.
Investigating water access constraints and land-based livelihoods for empowerment of rural farming women and implication for household food security : the case study of three irrigation schemes in Limpopo.
(2013) Gumede, Nkanyiso Brighton.; Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.; Mthiyane, Cynthia Carol Nonhlanhla.; Kolanisi, Unathi.
Agriculture plays an important role in rural livelihoods. However, poverty and food insecurity still persist in rural communities of South Africa where women are central to ensuring household food security through several livelihood activities including agriculture. Women engage in land-based livelihood such as irrigated agriculture to increase household food security and reduce reliance on cash to feed their households. However, poor access to water and insecure access to productive resources such as land threatens rural livelihoods and are a major constraint to poverty reduction in rural areas. According to IFPRI (2012)’s Women Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI), access to production resources is an important domain for empowerment of women farmers. The aim of the study was to investigate dynamics under which rural women operate when accessing water to improve the land-based livelihoods that they engage in for improving livelihoods and household food security and to investigate the knowledge rural women possess or lack in empowering themselves for improved land-based livelihoods and improving household food security. Three small scale irrigation schemes from three district municipalities in Limpopo province, South Africa, were investigated using mixed methods approach, involving quantitative and qualitative approaches, was employed. Sampling of the participants in each irrigation scheme was done through purposive sampling. Structured questionnaires, administered to women farmers through face-to-face interviews, key informant interviews, focus group discussions and observations were used for data triangulation. The study revealed that women faced various challenges when accessing water which ranged from distant sources, unreliable and inadequate supply of water and poor irrigation infrastructure to insecure land rights. Women engaged in irrigated agriculture and livestock farming. They possessed adequate knowledge on soil preparation, weeding and harvesting. However, lack of knowledge on water management and conservation, pest management and markets was observed as an impediment to women empowerment. Ensuring secure access to adequate land and water to rural women and providing skills and knowledge for agriculture and production while ensuring access to markets may contribute to empowerment of rural women and improved land-based livelihoods that rural women engage in to improve household food security which leads to poverty reduction.
An investigation into the role of irrigated gardens in filling the food gap in Kavango East region, Namibia.
(2018) Kawana, Romanus Kavindame.; Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.; Mudhara, Maxwell.
Kavango East region is facing insufficient food for most of its community, especially in the rural areas since 2012. This is attributed to climate change which induces, in most cases, drought and floods. The Government of the Republic of Namibia has been assisting climate change affected rural communities by distributing food consignments, to minimize the negative effects. This program is costly to the national budget, and it is done at the expense of other priorities of national development. This study was centred on a livelihood based analysis of the contribution of irrigated gardens in filling food availability gap left by the rain-fed harvest in Kavango East Region, Namibia. A study was conducted among 200 participants (100 households without gardens and 100 households with gardens) at 20 randomly selected villages and data was collected through the use of Livelihood Analysis framework, Income and Expenditure Pattern, Household Food Insecurity Access Scale Score (HFIAS), and Dietary Diversity Score (DDS). An open-ended and closed-ended questionnaire was used for data collection. The data was analysed using SPSS, while for Household Food Insecurity Access Scale Score (HFIAS), and Dietary Diversity Score (DDS) data were analysed according to the procedures developed by FANTA in SPSS. Households with a garden had more ability to fill the food availability gap left by the rain-fed harvest as compared to the households without gardens. Households with gardens were experiencing an improvement in their dietary diversity through irrigated gardening, as compared to households without an irrigated garden. However, the lack of markets and important inputs discourages the willingness to use the irrigated garden. Despite the challenges, the household with irrigated gardens was benefiting from irrigated gardens. The study recommends that the leadership of the Kavango East Region should promote the establishment of gardens by communities alongside market development, in order to enhance food availability. Therefore, further research could be carried out to investigate produce demand, market size and the role of market availability for irrigated garden produce in enhancing the socio-economic situation of irrigated gardeners in Kavango East Region.
Investigation of selected hygiene parameters of uMbumbulu small-scale farmers' organic produce (leafy salad vegetables) and subsequent identification of factors affecting farmer practices and food security.
(2013) Mdluli, Fezile.; Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.; Schmidt, Stefan.
The study aimed to investigate the hygiene quality of fresh agricultural produce, irrigation water and compost from four cooperatives (Jabulani, Nungwane, Senzakahle and Siyazenzela) supplying the uMbumbulu Agri-Hub Non-Governmental Organisation. In addition, the influence that socio-economic characteristics such as age, gender, level of education and training had on the uMbumbulu farmers’ hygienic practices was investigated. Questionnaires, key informant interviews and laboratory analysis were used to collect data. The most probable number (MPN) method, a microbiological technique, was used to quantify selected hygiene indicators (i.e. total and faecal coliforms including Escherichia coli) from compost, irrigation water and leafy vegetables (spinach and lettuce) during the months of October, November and December 2011. Microbiological analysis on lettuce and spinach produced by the four Agri-Hub cooperatives confirmed that these vegetables were safe to eat and unlikely to cause sickness. The irrigation water sources, vegetables and compost faecal coliform levels met national standards with faecal coliforms of <1 000 MPN/100ml for irrigation and<200 MPN/g for the leafy salad vegetables. Compost faecal coliform levels were <1000/g and E. coli levels of <30 MPN/g, these levels decreased over the 3 months. Descriptive statistics such as the Chi-Square test using IBM SPSS and a logistic regression was performed using the STATA 11 software. The sample consisted of 60% female and 40% males, most of which (73%) were above the age of 40. A total of 60% of respondents received income from farming activities, receiving revenues of between R150- R250 a week. The logistic regression indicated that farmers already receiving some income from farming activities and those that had received training on hygienic farming practices were likely to wash hands and equipment prior to entering the field compared to those who had not. These variables influenced the hygienic practices with a probability of 26% and 32% respectively at 5% significance level. The logistic regression also showed that respondents with primary or no formal education were less likely to wash hands and equipment prior to entering the field compared to those who had a secondary level education. This unlikelihood had a probability of 35% for primary education and 43% for farmers with no formal education at significance levels of 5% and 10% respectively. This study indicates how training, education and farming experience are important and effective tools in implementing good hygienic practices in small-scale farming. The study’s main recommendations are that policies encourage farmer awareness on their responsibility of producing vegetables that are of good hygienic quality, especially if such produce is to reach the market. Furthermore policies should advocate for small-scale farmer training. This training should not be limited to subsistence farming but should also aim at preparing farmers towards accessing produce markets. Farmer training in hygienic practices should aid farmers to meet the stringent market standards allowing for better access, the regular income from such activities support farming as a livelihood and bearer of food security. It must also be noted that farmers require support in attaining the various resources needed in order to successfully and continually supply markets.
Land use security within the current land property rights in rural South Africa : how women's land based food security efforts are affected.
(2013) Murugani, Vongai Gillian.; Kolanisi, Unathi.; Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.
Rural women‘s land rights in South Africa remain secondary in spite of laws founded on a constitution that promotes gender equality. Patriarchal customary laws prevail and women‘s land rights and use security are inextricably linked to their relationships with their male relatives. Rural women are key producers of agricultural products due to historical and continued male outward migration, which has led to a feminisation of agriculture. Although women farm the land, their land use security is poor and can be further threatened by divorce or widowhood. Given that most vulnerable women are based in rural communal South Africa, how can their land rights be secured under the customary law framework? While the statutory law framework seems to provide a solution, it is less applicable in rural areas where customary law and traditional practices prevail. If statutory law cannot be superimposed on the existing customary law framework, how can women‘s land use be further secured to support their household food security efforts? What kind of framework can be introduced to strengthen women‘s land use security? A study was conducted in rural Limpopo Province to explore this complex and yet important question. A mixed methods approach comprising interview style questionnaires with a mixture of closed and open-ended questions, coupled with focus group discussions and observation was employed. Qualitative data from the focus group discussions and open-ended questions was analysed for common themes using content analysis. Quantitative data was analysed using SPSS to establish descriptive data, frequencies and establish the relationships between variables. Results of the analyses were used for building blocks to develop a land rights framework that is more gender sensitive and secures the rights of the actual land users. Women‘s land rights were largely confirmed to be secondary and land use security was linked to the continued relationship to male relatives through marriage and natural blood lines. From these findings, a gender sensitive framework that enables and improves land-based food security efforts has been proposed.
The potential contribution of a sustainable organic household food garden to vitamin A and vegetable needs of sampled low-income households, KwaZulu-Natal.
(2003) Makhotla, Likeleli.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.; Green, Jannette Maryann.; Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.; Young, Marion Belinda.
Vitamin A deficiency is a worldwide public health problem. In South Africa, in 1999, 62 to 70 percent of children in rural areas and 48 to 62 percent in urban areas consumed less than half the recommended dietary allowance for vitamin. A. This study set out to investigate the potential contribution of home gardens to the vitamin A and vegetable needs of low-income households, especially in rural areas. The study problem was to develop a model of a sustainable household food garden to ensure adequate supply of vitamin A rich vegetables to meet the vitamin A requirements of low-income households throughout the year. The study subproblems included: first, to develop an organic household food garden unit to provide adequate vitamin A and vegetables for households. Second, to test the feasibility of the garden unit among sample households in two study areas. Third, to test vitamin A and vegetable adequacies of the garden unit for the sample households. A survey of 52 households from Department of Agriculture communal garden projects in Cuphulaka and Mlwandle in KwaZulu-Natal was conducted. The sample households were participants in communal gardens, but the survey dealt with household production only. Data included household demographics, types of vegetables grown, garden sizes, gardening practices, the socio-economic and environmental constraints of home gardening and the food frequency consumption. The garden unit was developed from a review of literature regarding best practice of organic production of vitamin A rich vegetables. The garden unit was demonstrated to the study participants and their perceptions of the unit were measured in discussion groups to test the acceptance and feasibility of the household garden. Data on household demographics and frequency of vegetable consumption was used to measure adequacy of vitamin A consumed by households and to test adequacy of vitamin A and vegetables from the garden unit. Most participants depended mainly on communal garden projects for vegetables. Although access to land seemed not a problem, few sample households practiced home gardening. Water scarcity and lack of fencing were frequently reported as constraints of home gardening by sample households who perceived home gardening as a cost-effective way of diversifying and adding nutrients to family diets. However, vegetable production in home gardens was characterised by low yields and seasonal availability. The potential of the household food gardens to increase vegetable production was found feasible by sample households. No significant difference was identified in vegetable consumption of households with and without home gardens. In fact, participation in communal gardens does not increase the vegetable consumption of sample households, which may be the result of no or low production and poor eating habits. The study assumed that rural households should consume at least 33 percent of RDA of vitamin A from vegetables, yet many sample households consumed less than this. Sample households could obtain enough vitamin A and vegetables from the garden unit/s, and in many cases they could have surpluses. Recommendations include the integration of home gardening in government strategies and integration of nutrition education in programmes that aim at increasing vegetable production in communal and home gardens in study areas.
The practice, constraints and perceptions of improving soil quality through manure application : a case study of three smallholder farmer groups.
(2009) Naidoo, K. D.; Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.; Hendriks, Sheryl Lee.
Land degradation and soil nutrient depletion have become serious threats to agricultural productivity in sub-Saharan Africa. Soil fertility depletion in smallholder areas has been cited as the fundamental biophysical cause of declining per-capita food production in Africa. Manure application is a well established and known practice, but not effectively used among South African smallholders. This study investigated the practice, constraints and perceptions of improving soil quality through manure application through a case study of three smallholder farmer groups. Three groups from rural areas of KwaZulu-Natal (Mkhambatini, Mooi River and Richmond) were selected to participate in the study. Participatory methodologies were used to identify and clarify the study problem. Three participatory focus group discussions, one per area, were conducted with farmers at the study sites to discuss farming methods, experience and perceptions of manure use, manure management practices and constraints farmers experience with manure use. Force Field Analysis was used for each group to explore for forces against and in support for manure use. Random soil and manure samples were collected for laboratory analysis to determine fertility levels. Some farmers indicated that soil fertility was low. However, half the sample perceived the land to be productive to some extent. The study showed that 40 per cent of farmers reported improved soil fertility following the application of manure. Due to the limited availability of livestock manure, farmers prefer to use both livestock manure and commercial fertilisers. Furthermore, the study found that except for young farmers (20 per cent of the sample), farmers had not received formal training and very limited extension advice on composting and manure use and management. The study participants were aware of the consequences of declining soil fertility and were attempting to improve soil quality. However, low livestock numbers and poor management led to inadequate amounts of manure, and, limited access to information on manure and compost use. Unless better knowledge of optimal soil nutrient management practice is acquired by the farmers, soil fertility levels will continue to decline, further reducing production potential and rural household food security. Government needs to revisit extension support to meet the needs of smallholders and offer training on sound soil management, sustainable production methods, composting and livestock management. A handbook with graphic detail should be accompanied to provide smallholders with information and advice on how to manage soil fertility.
Qualitative evaluation of smallholder and organic farmer decision support tool (DST) and its improvement by inclusion of a disease management component.
(2011) Molefe, Thato.; Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.; Yobo, Kwasi Sackey.
Historically, South Africans, particularly small-scale farmers have had little support and hence lack tools and information when faced with production decisions. Information plays an important role in enlightening people, raising their level of knowledge and in turn improving their standard of living and participation in decision making process. Research shows that Information Communication Technology (ICT) like Decision support tools (DSTs) plays an important role in systematic dissemination of information in agriculture, thus improving the quality of farmers’ decisions. Decision support tools provide up-to-date data, procedures and analytical capacity leading to better-informed decisions, especially in rural areas. A body of research is emerging around issues of effectiveness of DSTs for farmers in the developed world. However, few studies have focused on issues around effectiveness of these tools for farmers in the developing world, particularly for resource-limited farmers. This study set out to evaluate the effectiveness of a new DST for organic and small-scale farmers with a group of extension officers and researchers in KwaZulu-Natal. As an extension to the DST, a crop disease management component linked to the DST was developed. The study also set to evaluate the effectiveness of the crop disease management component. Extension officers and researchers were purposively selected for this study because both groups play a major role as far as organising and disseminating information to organic and small-scale farmers is concerned. This study identified key measures for effectiveness of DSTs and crop disease management guides using literature from the study. Two frameworks for measuring effectiveness were developed to evaluate the effectiveness of the new DST and its crop disease management component with the extension officers and researchers. Focus group discussions were used for data collection. The frameworks were used as a base for the focus group discussions. Focus groups were conducted to explore and establish whether in the light the groups (extension officers and researchers), the new DST and its crop disease management component are effective. Results from the study revealed that extension officers and researchers felt that the DST and its crop disease management component are effective since they meet key measures for effectiveness identified in the framework. The groups agreed that the DST and its crop disease management component are relevant to small-scale farmers. They also agreed that the DST has the ability to improve access to information for small-scale farmers. Lastly, they also agreed that the DST and its crop disease management component are transparent (meaning flexible and user friendly) for small-scale farmers. Some of the areas for improvement identified by the groups included a need for information on pests and more diseases for the DST and the crop disease management component. Although the groups felt that both the DST and crop disease management were effective, they strongly recommended a need for another study that will aim at developing a pest management component of the DST as this was clearly requested by groups in this study. Results of this study showed that half the respondents felt that the DST was easy enough to be used by small-scale farmers without help from extension officers, while the other half believed that small-scale farmers will still need the help of extension officers to show them how to use the DST. Government and other relevant institutions need to provide appropriate training for these farmers, making the DST useful to them.
The role of subsistance farming cooperatives in improving rural household food security : the case of Mwendo sector, Ruhango district/ Rwanda.
(2013) Mbanza, Sylvestre.; Chitja, Joyce Magoshi.
Agricultural cooperatives play an important role in rural Rwanda is as the country is one of the most densely populated countries in Africa and the majority of population relies on subsistence smallholder farming. Agricultural cooperatives have been regarded as a way of promoting smallholders, particularly subsistence farmers, where collective operations can increase agricultural production for a household. But although research indicates many factors affecting cooperative development and agriculture productivity these factors are not the same in every country. This study investigated the role of agricultural cooperatives in improving household food security and factors contributing to the success of smallholder agricultural cooperatives. It is expected that isolation of benefits of agricultural cooperative members in food security and the factors influencing production may assist government and other institution dealing with food security in plans and decisions to support smallholder farmers. The study randomly selected three registered rural agricultural cooperatives in Mwendo Sector growing pineapples, peas and maize. The research sample size of 150 cooperative members’ and 20 non-cooperative members was used to explore the agriculture cooperative in Rwanda, factors influencing production in agricultural cooperative and benefits of belonging or not belonging in a cooperative in Rwanda. Data were collected through questionnaires. In order to complement the quantitative data and results of the study, focus group discussions and key informant interviews were also used to appraise these research questions. A cross-cutting conceptual framework for measuring effectiveness of agricultural cooperatives was elaborated using literature review and it was used for comparative analysis as effectiveness of the assessed cooperatives. The results revealed that cooperatives possess the same organizational structure, only differences are found in internal organization. The study further found that the factors influencing productivity of agricultural cooperative are equipment used in agriculture, training received by cooperative members, cooperative organization, government assistance and extension officer services, inputs used in production, marital status of members, age and level of education of cooperative members. From the findings it was found that cooperative members benefit from cooperative income, government assistance and skills from cooperative training in agriculture. Other benefits found are increase of production and market of cooperative produces through cooperation and promotion of culture and unity in the locality through various social and religious activities within cooperative members. Research recommends the government and its stakeholders to sensitize so that every smallholder should belong to the cooperative for the sake of helping them in groups. Government should facilitate cooperatives use of improved equipment and inputs through offering intensive trainings on financial management, agriculture and animal husbandry which augment production. Government also should ensure affordable bank credit rate to cooperative farmers, provide improved seeds to the farmers and avoid delay of delivery. On the other side, cooperative members should be determined, investing in cooperative and dealing with challenges in order to be self-reliance as a way of fighting against food insecurity.

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