Horticultural Science

Permanent URI for this communityhttps://hdl.handle.net/10413/6545

Browse

Now showing 1 - 9 of 9

Aspects of avocado fruit growth and development : towards understanding the 'Hass' small fruit syndrome.
(1997) Moore-Gordon, Clive Scott.; Cowan, Ashton Keith.; Wolstenholme, B. Nigel.
Persea americana Mill. cv. Hass is predisposed towards producing a high proportion of undersized fruit. Reasons for phenotypically small 'Hass' fruit are obscure, but it does appear to be aggravated by adverse growing conditions. A detailed study of the metabolic control of avocado fruit growth was carried out to determine the underlying physiological reasons for the appearance of the 'Hass' small fruit phenotype. Furthermore, the application of a mulch was evaluated as a possible management strategy to increase 'Hass' fruit size. Anatomical and morphological comparisons were made between normal and small 'Hass' fruit in an attempt to characterise the 'Hass' small fruit phenotype. Small fruit always contained a degenerate seed coat and fruit size was closely correlated with seed size. Kinetic analysis of changes in cell number and size during fruit development revealed that growth was limited by cell number in phenotypically small fruit. Analysis of endogenous isopentenyladenine (iP) and abscisic acid (ABA) revealed that ABA concentration was negatively correlated with size of similarly aged fruit. Calculation of the iP:ABA ratio showed a linear relationship with increasing fruit size. Qualitative and quantitative differences in mesocarp sterol composition were observed between normal and phenotypically small fruit. Both the normal and small-fruit phenotypes were used to probe the interaction between end-products of isoprenoid biosynthesis and activity of mesocarp 3-hydroxy-3- methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (HMGR) in the metabolic control of avocado fruit growth. In phenotypically small fruit, a 70% reduction in microsomal HMGR activity was associated with a substantial rise in mesocarp ABA concentration at all stages of development. Application of mevastatin, a competitive inhibitor of HMGR, via the pedicel reduced growth of phenotypically normal fruit and increased mesocarp ABA concentration. These effects were reversed by co-treatment of fruit with either mevalonate, iP or the synthetic cytokinin (CK) analogue, N-(2-chloro-4-pyridyl)-N-phenylurea, but were unaffected by gibberellic acid. Likewise, in vivo application of ABA reduced fruit growth and HMGR activity, and accelerated abscission at all stages of development, effects that were reversed by co-treatment with iP. In contrast, the effect of sterols on mevastatin-induced inhibition of fruit growth was temporally different. Application of either stigmasterol or cholesterol during phase I caused a decline in growth, accelerated fruit abscission and exacerbated the effects of mevastatin whereas during phase II and III, stigmasterol reversed inhibition of fruit growth. Stigmasterol did not however, reverse the inhibitory effect of mevastatin on HMGR activity - presumably as a result of mevastatin-induced increased endogenous ABA. It was therefore concluded that ABA accumulation downregulates mesocarp HMGR activity and that in situ CK biosynthesis modulates the effect of ABA during phase I of fruit growth whereas, both CK and sterols perform this function during the later stages to sustain the developmental programme. The effect of an altered CK:ABA ratio on solute allocation, cell-to-cell communication and plasmodesmatal structure was investigated in 'Hass' avocado fruits to determine the relationship between a change in hormone balance and expression of phenotypically small fruit. Exogenous application of ABA induced early seed coat senescence and retarded fruit growth, and these effects were negated in fruit co-injected with ABA and iP. The underlying physiological mechanisms associated with ABA-induced retardation of 'Hass' avocado fruit growth included: diminution of mesocarp and seed coat plasmodesmatal branching; gating of mesocarp and seed coat plasmodesmata by deposition of apparently proteinaceous material in the neck region; abolishment of the electrochemical gradient between mesocarp and seed coat parenchyma; and arrest of cell-to-cell chemical communication. In addition, solute allocation in ABA-treated fruit resembled closely that of phenotypically small fruit confirming that elevated ABA concentration had contributed to the decline in postphloem symplastic continuity. In a field trial in the KwaZulu-Natal midlands, root growth was substantially increased throughout three seasons by the application of a coarse composted pinebark mulch. Mulching resulted in a significant 6.6% increase in mean fruit mass, in spite of 14.7% more fruits per tree. The combined effect was a 22.6% increase in overall yield. Differences in productivity between treatments closely correlated to levels of bark carbohydrate reserves. Data collated during this study to suggest that mulching at least partly ameliorated tree stress included: a reduction in the incidence of premature seed coat senescence and pedicel ring-neck, both of which are considered to be advanced symptoms of the stress syndrome; a lowering of mean foliage temperatures; and a reduction in the degree of photoinhibition during the heat of the day.
Ecophysiological studies and tree manipulation for maximisation of yield potential in avocado (Persea americana Mill.)
(1994) Whiley, Anthony W.; Wolstenholme, B. Nigel.; Schaffer, B.
Tree fruit crops generally consist of scion and rootstock components, which through interactive synergism affect tree performance. Coupled with tree architecture, sink/source relationships (both spatial and temporal), genotypic responses to environments, and carry-over seasonal effects present a high level of complexity which often confounds research results. The development, description and use of pheno/physiological models as research and crop management tools is a new holistic approach to reduce complexity and improve understanding of the critical factors which influence crop productivity. A pheno/physiological model is described for cv. Hass avocado growing in a cool, mesic subtropical environment in S.E. Queensland, Australia. Seasonal shoot and root growth had bimodal periodicity with root growth offset and delayed with respect to shoot growth. The priority sink strength of developing shoots compared with roots was confirmed with 14(C) studies. Root growth in summer extended through until late winter when there was a substantial decline following anthesis - a critical time in fruit development with competition between reproductive and vegetative sinks for limited resources. Delayed harvesting of fruit over several seasons resulted in alternate bearing patterns, while removal of fruit at the minimum legal maturity of 21 to 24% dry matter sustained successive high yields. With cv. Hass, production was directly related to starch concentrations in trunks or shoots in July (midwinter) immediately prior to anthesis. However, seasonal starch concentration fluxes in trunks were much lower in coastal subtropical Australia compared with those previously reported from interior areas in more southerly latitudes (7.5% vs. 18% maximum). Current assimilate from over-wintered leaves was necessary to bridge the gap in early spring between the depletion of starch reserves by new reproductive and vegetative shoot growth, and the sink/source transition of the spring shoot growth. Net CO2 assimilation of summer grown leaves reached ca. 17 µmol CO2 m(-2) s(-1), approximately twice as high as previously reported rates on container-grown plants or trees in minimum temperatures were < 10⁰C for 50 days, this being the first report of this phenomenon in field-grown avocado trees. Partial recovery occurred prior to senescence of previous season's leaves in spring after minimum temperatures increased above 10⁰C. The plasticity of the light response was high with the compensation point for net CO2 assimilation at 30 µmol quanta m(-2) s(-1) and the light saturation point at 1270 µmol quanta m(-2) s(-1). Net CO2 fixation from fruit photosynthesis was always less than losses through respiration but was highest during the first few weeks of ontogeny, perhaps contributing to the fruit's own carbon economy at a time when competition for assimilates was greatest. In general, CO2 assimilation studies with current technology applied to orchard trees in non-restrictive soils have elucidated efficiencies more akin to deciduous than evergreen trees - thereby compensating for short-lived leaves and energy expensive fruits. Pheno/physiology models were used to substantiate the most effective timing for trunk injection of ambimobile phosphonate fungicides for the control of Phytophthora root rot, a serious disease of avocados, viz. at the completion of the leaf expansion phases when leaves were strong net exporters. Preliminary studies demonstrated potential yield increases when the assimilation efficiency of photoinhibited over-wintered leaves was improved through increased nitrogen concentration, and spring shoot growth was partially suppressed with foliar sprays of the growth retardant paclobutrazol.
Effects of potassium and mulching on Persea americana Mill. cv. Hass pheno/physiology, yield and fruit size.
(2001) Van Niekerk, Warren; Bower, John Patrick.; Johnston, M. A.
No abstract available.
Evaluation of maturity parameters of 'Fuerte' and 'Hass' avocado fruit.
(2014) Olarewaju, Olaoluwa Omoniyi.; Bertling, Isa.; Magwaza, Lembe Samukelo.
Avocado fruit is one of the most important horticultural crops produced in South Africa. The fruit does not give obvious indication of maturity as it does not ripen as long as it remains attached to a tree. Harvesting avocado fruit at full physiological maturity, a stage at which it will continue normal development, plays a vital role in the postharvest physiological processes and the successful postharvest management of the fruit. Common maturity parameters used in various avocado fruit industries include mesocarp oil content, moisture content (MC) and dry matter (DM). However, the difficulty of measurement (oil content) and unreliability (MC and DM), can result in immature fruit reaching the consumer. To ensure that avocado fruit of good quality are delivered to the market and for growers to maximise profits, possible factors indicating optimal harvest maturity were investigated during the South African 2013 and 2014 avocado growing season. Additionally, the growth pattern of fruit, beyond what is currently regarded as physiological maturity, was examined for the possibility of the fruit exhibiting a double sigmoidal growth pattern, typical of nut crops. Fruit were harvested from two commercial orchards in the cool subtropical area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Fruit were harvested bi-weekly from February to March and then monthly from April to October, 2014. The MC decreased over the harvesting period, (p < 0.001), while oil content increased (p < 0.001). The study of the pattern of avocado fruit growth and development over the eight months observation period revealed that the fruit exhibits a single sigmoidal growth pattern. It could also be deduced from the experimental results that MC is a better indicator of maturity compared with oil content. In a quest to find an alternative maturity indicator that could provide a more reliable measure of avocado harvest maturity, total soluble solids (TSS) was evaluated for the possibility of providing an objective maturity index. Seven carbon (C7) sugars, D-mannoheptulose and perseitol, are dominant sugars in avocado fruit and have been suggested as likely indicators of avocado fruit maturity. D-mannoheptulose, a major component of mesocarp TSS, has been suspected to be responsible for the continued growth of the fruit. 'Fuerte‟ and „Hass‟ avocado fruit were harvested during the early, mid and late harvesting period in 2013 from Bounty Farm and during the 2014 season (February to August) from Bounty Farm and Everdon Estate. Sample ws taken along the equatorial region of each fruit and analysed for TSS, measured by squeezing juice out of the mesocarp using a garlic press and determining its °Brix using a digital refractometer. A high level of significant difference was observed between TSS and harvesting period for „Fuerte‟ during both seasons (p < 0.001) and a significant difference was found between the two production locations during the 2014 growing period (p < 0.001). There was no significant difference (p = 0.344) between production sites for „Hass‟ fruit harvested during the 2014 season. The results of the study reveal that TSS cannot be used as an indicator of avocado fruit maturity. In an attempt to non-destructively predict maturity parameters of avocado fruit, a total of 150 intact avocado fruit were scanned in reflectance mode of near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) during the 2013 and 2014 growing seasons. Reference maturity parameters, including MC, DM and oil content were measured using conventional destructive methods. Calibration models developed during 2013 season were used to predict the dataset acquired during 2014. NIRS prediction results showed that MC and DM were predicted with significant accuracy compared with oil content, prediction of which was not accurate. The prediction statistics for NIRS predicted MC and DM content demonstrated the potential of this system for non-destructive evaluation of avocado fruit maturity parameters (MC and DM). The high prediction accuracy recorded when models developed in 2013 were used to predict maturity of fruit harvested during the 2014 season demonstrated robustness of partial least square (PLS) models. Where speed and accuracy are required for assessing the maturity status of individual, intact avocado fruit, the method developed in this study is recommended.
Factors affecting mesocarp discolouration severity in 'Pinkerton' avocados (Persea americana MILL.)
(2005) Van Rooyen, Zelda.; Bower, John Patrick.
The susceptibility of the 'Pinkerton' avocado cultivar to mesocarp discolouration, after storage, has seriously threatened its export from South Africa. This disorder has proven to be complex, requiring a better understanding of the fruit's physiology. The purposes of this study were to identify the role of pre- and postharvest factors, or their interactions, in the development of the problem. This was done by obtaining fruit from several production areas of varying mesocarp discolouration histories (referred to as "high", "medium" or "Iow risk" areas) during the 2000 and 2001 seasons. Fruit were stored at 8, 5.5 and 2°C for 30 days, as well as ambient (20°C). Evaluations of fruit quality were made before and after storage, as well as after softening. Once removed from storage the weight loss (during storage) was determined, and fruit firmness and carbon dioxide (C02) production rates monitored daily. It was found that temperatures below the recommended shipping temperature of 5.5°C, i.e. 2°C, produced the best internal fruit quality. This was supported by the membrane integrity studies that showed less membrane stability at the warmer storage temperature of 8°C. Furthermore, remained hard during storage and subsequently had an extended shelf life. Fruit origin was also found to play a major role in browning potential, with discolouration being consistently more severe in fruit from "high risk" areas and increasing in severity as the season progressed. The rate of CO2 production was found to follow a similar trend, with rates increasing as the season progressed, and also being slightly higher in fruit from "high risk" areas. The higher CO2 production rates were thought to be related to a decrease in membrane integrity as the season progressed. While storage temperature was not found to have a significant effect on the rate of CO2 production after storage, it did affect the time taken to reach the maximum rate, with fruit stored at 2°C taking longer. Biochemical analyses to determine the concentration of total phenolics and the activity of the enzyme polyphenol oxidase (PPO) also showed that the potential for browning was initiated by preharvest conditions. While no significant differences were found between growers with regards to total phenol concentrations, the PPO activity was found to be higher in fruit from poor quality areas, and subsequently browning potential was expected to be higher in these fruit. It was, however, found that the potential for browning could be reduced by storing fruit at 2°C, as this decreased the total phenolics concentration. This evidence further emphasized the idea that storage at 2°C could be highly advantageous. Fruit mineral analysis showed that certain key elements played a significant role in the severity of mesocarp discolouration, with excessive fruit nitrogen and decreasing copper and manganese concentrations appearing to play major roles. The high fruit nitrogen concentrations were suspected to reflect fruit grown on very vigorous trees, resulting in shoots competing with fruit for available reserves. It is suggested that 'Pinkerton' of a quality acceptable to the market, can be produced by manipulating source:sink relationships, particularly through decreasing the availability of nitrogen, followed by low temperature (24° C) shipping. Future work should concentrate on manipulation of source:sink relationships, to take account of both climatic conditions and leaf to fruit ratios. The evaluation of chlorophyll fluorescence as a tool for predicting mesocarp discolouration potential in 'Pinkerton' proved to be unsuccessful in this study and future studies may require modifications to the current technique. It is suspected that differences in chlorophyll content, for example, between fruit from different origins, will have to be taken into account when interpreting results. The success of using 2°C storage to improve the internal quality on 'Pinkerton' fruit prompted further studies, during 2004, to ensure that the development of external chilling injury would not decrease the marketability of the cultivar. Low temperature conditioning treatments, prior to storage, proved to be highly successful in reducing the development of external chilling injury, thus further improving fruit quality as a whole. Preconditioning treatments consisted of fruit that were kept at either 10°C, 15°C or 20°C for 1 or 2 days before being placed into storage for 30 days at 2°C or 5.5°C. All preconditioning treatments were compared to fruit that were placed directly into storage. The effect of fruit packaging on moisture loss (as determined by weight loss) and chilling injury was also investigated using unwaxed fruit, commercially waxed and unwaxed fruit individually sealed in micro-perforated polypropylene bags with an anti-mist coating on the inside (polybags). Holding 'Pinkerton' fruit, regardless of packaging treatment, at 10°C for 2 days prior to storage at 2°C or 5.5°C significantly decreased the severity of external chilling injury. The use of polybags during preconditioning and storage showed potential in further reducing the development of external chilling injury, although the higher incidence of fungal infections in these fruit needs to be addressed. The determination of proline concentrations in fruit exocarp tissue after storage was helpful in determining the level of stress experienced by fruit that were subjected to different packaging and preconditioning treatments. In this study waxed fruit subjected to 1 d preconditioning at 10°C, 15°C or 20°C or placed directly into storage at 2°C showed very high proline concentrations and also displayed more severe external chilling injury, despite unwaxed fruit losing more weight during these treatments. The role of moisture loss thus needs further investigation. The thickness and method of wax application was thought to play an important role in the higher external chilling injury ratings in this study as waxed fruit often developed chilling injury symptoms around the lenticels and it was suspected that either the lenticels were damaged by the brushes used to apply the wax or that the lenticels became clogged thus resulting in reduced gaseous exchange. Nevertheless, the success of low temperature conditioning in reducing external chilling injury, while maintaining sound internal quality, may enable storage temperatures to be dropped even further, thus enabling South Africa to export avocados to countries that require a cold disinfestation period prior to entry to eliminate quarantine pests (e.g. fruit fly).
Plant hormone homeostasis and the control of 'hass' avocado fruit size.
(2002) Taylor, Nicolette Jane.; Cairns, Andrew Lawrence Patrick.; Cowan, Ashton Keith.; Van Staden, Johannes.
The 'Hass' avocado produces two distinct phenotypically different populations of fruit, i.e. normal and small fruit. The small fruit variant is characterized by early seed coat senescence that results in arrested growth, due to dramatically reduced cell cycle activity. This system has been used to study the metabolic control of fruit growth for two reasons. Firstly, the 'Hass' avocado is a major export crop in South Africa and unmarketable small fruit cost the industry millions of rands per season. Secondly, in the absence of evergreen tree-crop mutants with which to dissect controlling mechanisms contributing to the control of final fruit size, the 'Hass' avocado and its small fruit variant provides an ideal system to investigate the physiology, biochemistry and molecular biology of fruit growth in subtropical species. A detailed study was conducted to probe the contribution of hormones in the control of final fruit size by comparing and contrasting tissue distribution and content of hormones in developing 'Hass' avocado and its small fruit variant. In addition the proposal that changes in hormone homeostasis occur as a result of differences in the allocation of the molybdenum cofactor (MoCo) and changes in the activity of xanthine dehydrogenase (XDH) and the aldehyde oxidases (AO) involved in abscisic acid (ABA) and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) metabolism was evaluated. Activity of XDH, xanthoxal (XAN) oxidase, indole acetaldehyde (IA-aid) oxidase and cytokinin oxidase (CKOX) was related to tissue content and composition of IAA and ABA. Comparisons between normal and small fruit revealed that under conditions where CKOX is elevated, the increased adenine produced inhibits XDH activity, which leads to elevated activity of the AOs involved in ABA and possibly IAA biosynthesis as a result of increased MoCo allocation to these enzymes. Further analyses revealed that both cytokinin (CK) and auxin elevates CKOX activity and that adenine and CK do indeed inhibit XDH activity, which leads to increased AO activity. In addition, application of CK to normal fruit increased IAA in mesocarp tissue but reduced IAA content of seed tissue and reduced ABA in mesocarp tissue but had no effect on ABA in seed tissue. Cytokinin oxidase therefore contributes to the regulation of ABA and IAA metabolism during plant organ growth by modulating the activity of XDH. Low XDH and lA-aid oxidase activity together with high XAN oxidase and CKOX activity early in fruit development combine to reduce both elongation and radial growth, which results in the appearance of the 'Hass' small fruit phenotype. This event was associated with high ABA and low IAA in seed tissue of small fruit, but high ABA and IAA in seed coat and mesocarp tissue of these fruit. Thus, whilst low IAA in seed tissue is associated with reduced growth the . reverse is true in seed coat and mesocarp tissue where high IAA retards tissue growth. Calculation of CK/ABA and CK/IAA ratios revealed that a decrease in these ratios was found in mesocarp tissue of small fruit. However, in seed tissue of small fruit both IAA and ABA were decreased relative to CK. The maintenance of the correct hormonal balance in avocado fruit thus ensures the continuation of cell division cycle activity, with any changes responsible for the high incidence of a small fruit variant in the 'Hass' avocado.
Post-phloem transport and metabolism of sucrose in avocado.
(2001) Cripps, Ryan F.; Smith, Michael Trevor.; Cowan, Ashton Keith.
In South Africa, and in several other sub/tropical countries, the avocado represents a commercially important crop. Very little is currently understood about the metabolism of sugars in this fruit. The variety 'Hass' is a popular cultivar that is grown extensively in South Africa. However this. cultivar has a tendency to produce two distinct fruit phenotypes: a normal sized variant and a small, undersized variant. Current literature suggests that the small fruit phenotype is characterised by an elevated abscisic acid (ABA) to cytokinin ratio and altered isoprenoid metabolism. The results presented in the current investigation represent the findings from a detailed study into the metabolism and transport of sugars in 'Hass' fruit in an attempt to characterise solute allocation in developing avocado fruit. Furthermore, the activities of sugar metabolising enzymes, routes of solute movement and polyphenolic contents of normal, small and ABA-treated fruit were compared and contrasted to evaluate the potential role of ABA in the induction and expression of the small fruit phenotype. The enzymes invertase, sucrose synthase (SSy) and sucrose phosphate synthase are involved in the metabolism of sucrose (Suc) and, hence, phloem unloading, post-sieve element transport and fruit growth. Although not the major sugar present, Suc was found in avocado phloem sap, and the enzymology for its metabolism was shown to exist in avocado fruit. It appears that sink strength is established during early fruit growth by high acid invertase activity, especially during the period of rapid cell division. As fruit growth progresses the activity of SSy and an enzyme responsible for the oxidation of perseitol (tentatively termed perseitol dehydrogenase) increases, suggesting that these enzymes play an important role in the supply of carbon during the linear phase of fruit growth. All Suc metabolising enzyme activity diminishes as the fruit approaches maturity. With the exception of SSy (in the cleavage direction), all enzymes assayed showed a general increase in relative rates of activity in small and ABA-treated fruit. Similarly, ABA-treatment of seed coat discs in vitro resulted in the elevation of insoluble and soluble acid invertase, SSy (in the synthesis direction), and sucrose phosphate synthase activity. Furthermore, both small and ABA-treated fruit were characterised by elevated total soluble sugars, glucose and fructose levels. These observations suggest that altered sugar metabolism, as a consequence of changes in endogenous ABA levels, may contribute to the occurrence of the small fruit. The seed coat represents an import link between the seed, the mesocarp and the parental plant tissues. Loss of seed coat and endosperm integrity accompanied fruit maturation and a reduction in the movement of solutes into the seed. An increase in polyphenolics in the seed coat tissue seemed critical in this reduced movement. Both the small and ABA-treated fruit were characterised by early senescence of the seed coat, which was accompanied by both a loss of transport into and out of the seed and premature maturation of the fruit. This premature seed coat senescence appeared similar to programmed cell death in tissues exposed to stress or elevated reactive oxygen species, stimuli that are often accompanied by elevated ABA levels. Callose was localised to the plasmodesmata and is proposed to play a role in the gating of, and hence movement through, these pores. Small fruit were characterised by a loss of symplastic continuity, as represented by fewer plasmodesmata, and reduced callose degradation. Comparison of callose content and rates of synthesis suggest that ABA-treatment, similarly, reduces callose catabolism. The association of ABA with both the premature senescence of the seed coat and a reduction in symplastic continuity, and, hence, a reduction in solute transport, further cements the potential role of ABA in the occurrence of the small fruit phenotype.
Some aspects of water relations on avocado Persea americana (Mill.) tree and fruit physiology.
(1985) Bower, John Patrick.; Wolstenholme, B. Nigel.
The effect of long-term irrigation on water relations of 'Fuerte' avocado trees, and the consequences for fruit ripening and physiology, particularly physiological disorders, were studied. Four irrigation regimes were used, namely dryland relying on rainfall, occasional (irrigation when soil moisture tension reached 80 kPa), regular (soil moisture tension 55 kPa) and frequent (soil moisture 35 kPa). Seasonal tree leaf water potential was studied. This became more negative during the dry season (winter and spring) and less negative during the period of summer rainfall. During the dry periods, the dryland and 80 kPa treatments had considerably more negative leaf water potential than the 55 kPa and 35 kPa regimes. These differences decreased during the summer rainfall period. Acclimation was studied by measuring leaf osmotic pressure and osmotic pressure at zero turgor. A pattern similar to seasonal leaf water potential emerged. Further, the dryland treatment showed higher osmotic pressure, particularly at zero turgor, during winter and spring. It was concluded that these trees may have acclimated. Diurnal cycles of stomatal resistance, transpiration and leaf water potential on a summer, two winter and a spring day were monitored. Dry land trees showed acclimation, with delayed reaction to environmental water demand and decreasing soil moisture. Trees of the 80 kPa treatment showed greatest stress. Fruit water potential became more negative between April and July, with fruit softening becoming more rapid. Treatment differences were inconclusive. Polyphenol oxidase activity (PPO), soluble and total, was measured. For fruit picked in April and July 1983, the 55 kPa treatment showed the lowest activity and the 80 kPa the highest. Storage at 5,5⁰C for 30 days increased the activity, while fruit softening decreased it. July activity was higher than the April-harvested fruit. The same pattern emerged for fruit harvested in April 1985, although treatment differences were not significant. Rainfall was considerably higher during the fruit development period of 1985 fruit as compared with that of 1983. A significant interaction between restricted container ventilation during ripening and irrigation history was obtained, the 80 kPa fruit showing higher PPO activity than 55 kPa fruit. Ethylene evolution during ripening showed a normal climacteric pattern for 55 kPa and dryland fruit, but a delayed peak for 80 kPa fruit. Fruit calcium concentrations showed rapid changes between 7 and 16 weeks after fruit set thereafter remaining constant to harvest. There were no clear treatment differences. Fruit abscisic acid levels at 50% soft (100% is eating soft) were lowest in 55 kPa fruit, and highest in 80 kPa. A significant correlation between these values and soft fruit PPO activity was found. A preliminary fruit quality prediction model is suggested.
Special carbohydrates of avocado : their function as 'sources of energy' and 'anti-oxidants'.
(2009) Tesfay, Samson Zeray.; Bertling, Isa.
There is increasing interest in special heptose carbohydrates, their multifunctional roles from a plant physiological view point in fruit growth and development as well as in the whole plant in general due to their potential in mitigating photo-oxidative injury to the whole plant system and the image of avocado as ‘health fruit’. Studies have been carried out to investigate the role of avocado heptoses, rare carbohydrates predominantly produced in avocado. Several authors have documented various research findings and speculated on multifunctional roles of avocado special sugars. However, few reports have made an attempt to elucidate the multifunctional roles of avocado heptose carbohydrates as: ‘sources of energy’, storage and phloem-mobile transport sugars, and precursors for formation of antioxidants. Assessing the avocado carbohydrates over the plant growth and development during ontogeny may, therefore, offer clues to better understand whole plant behaviour. Plant sampling was carried out over different developmental stages. Using plants grown in the light versus etiolated seedlings; sugar determinations were also done to determine what sugar is produced from which storage organs. The sugars were extracted and analysed by isocratic HPLC/RID. The embryo had 47.11 % hexose and 52.96 % heptose sugars. The seed, however, also released significant amounts of D-mannoheptulose (7.09 ± 1.44 mg g-1 d. wt) and perseitol (5.36 ± 0.61 mg g-1 d. wt). Similarly fruit and leaf tissues had significant amounts of heptoses relative to hexoses at specific phenological stages. In postharvest ‘readyto-eat’ fruit the following carbohydrate concentrations were as follows:exocarp heptoses 13 ± 0.8; hexoses 4.37 ± 1.6 mg g-1 d. wt, mesocarp heptoses 8 ± 0.2; hexoses 3.55 ± 0.12 mg g-1 d. wt), seed heptoses (only perseitol) 13 ± 1.1; hexoses 5.79 ± 0.53 mg g-1 d. wt. The results of this experiment was the first to demonstrate that the heptoses D-mannoheptulose, and its polyol form, perseitol, are found in all tissues/organs at various phenological stages of avocado growth and development. Secondly, heptoses, as well as starch are carbohydrate reserves that are found in avocado. The heptoses, beyond being abundantly produced in the avocado plant, are also found in phloem and xylem saps as mobile sugars. The study also presents data on the interconversion of the C7 sugars Dmannoheptulose and perseitol. It is deduced that D-mannoheptulose can be reduced to perseitol, and perseitol can also be oxidized to D-mannoheptulose by enzymes present in a protein extract of the mesocarp. The potential catalyzing enzyme is proposed to be an aldolase, as electrophoretic determinations prove the presence of such an enzyme during various stages of development in various plant organs. Avocado heptoses play an important role in plant growth and development and in fruit in particular. Moreover, they are reported as sources of anti-oxidants, and contribute significantly to fruit physiology if they function in coordination with other anti-oxidants in fruit tissues. To evaluate the presence of anti-oxidant systems throughout avocado fruit development, various tissues were analysed for their total and specific anti-oxidant compositions. Total anti-oxidant levels were found to be higher in the exocarp and in seed tissue than in the mesocarp. While seed tissues contained predominantly ascorbic acid (AsA) and total phenolics (TP), the anti-oxidant composition of the mesocarp was characterised by the C7 sugar, D-mannoheptulose. Among the anti-oxidant enzymes assayed, peroxidase (POX) and catalase (CAT) were present in higher concentrations than superoxide dismutase (SOD) in mesocarp tissue. Different anti-oxidant systems seem to be dominant within the various fruit tissues. Carbohydrates are the universal source of carbon for cell metabolism and provide the precursors for the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, for example via the shikimic acid pathway for phenols. The preharvest free and membrane-bound phenols, catechin and epicatechin, are distributed differently in the various fruit tissues. Membrane-bound and free phenols also play a role as anti-oxidants, with free ones being more important. KSil (potassium silicate) application to fruit as postharvest treatment was used to facilitate the release of conjugates to free phenols via lysis. This treatment improved fruit shelf life. Western blotting also revealed that postharvest Si treatment affects the expression of enzymatic anti-oxidant-catalase (CAT). Overall the thesis results revealed that C7 sugars have anti-oxidant properties and that D-mannoheptulose is the important anti-oxidant in the edible portion of the avocado fruit. Dmannoheptulose is furthermore of paramount importance as a transport sugar. Perseitol on the other hand acts as the storage product of D-mannoheptulose, which can be easily converted into D-mannoheptulose.

Browse

Browsing Horticultural Science by Subject "Avocado--Physiology."