Masters Degrees (Conflict Resolution and Peace Studies)

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The impact of the socio-political context on peace education: experiences from three selected universities in Zimbabwe.
(2015) Mashingaidze, Sikhululekile.; Ndlovu, Joram.
In this dissertation, I focus on the impact of the socio-political context on the experiences of the teaching and learning of peace at Africa University (AU), the National University of Science and Technology (NUST) and the Midlands State University (MSU). The study is entrenched within the Systems and Marxist theories of education as well as the transformational conflict theory. My central argument is that peace education is currently operating within constrained environment within which it is viewed with suspicion as a western inspired regime change agenda. This is evident in the onslaught that it faces from state aligned media. Secondly, the potential effectiveness of peace education is also hindered by partisan political tampering that has kept its content and pedagogical approaches on a leash to ensure that it steers clear of controversial yet pertinent issues. Due to this evident lack of political will students argue that current peace education initiatives are not only irrelevant but designed to mollify them so they do not question the injustices of their lived realities. In my study I underscore that the sanctioning of peace education in Zimbabwean universities remains cosmetic in the absence of political will to address the structural socio-political imbalances that currently militate against the values of plurality, tolerance, truth telling, forgiveness and reconciliation. This dissertation mainly draws on former and current students, lecturers and retired educationists‟ subjective interpretations of their teaching, learning and existential experiences.
Preventing sexual and gender-based violence against refugee women in the workplace: perspectives of African refugee women living in Durban, South Africa.
(2021) Kabongo, Nsamba Yvonne.; Rukema, Joseph Rudigi.
To achieve its objectives, the study begins by exploring and examining the extent of sexual and gender-based violence against female refugees in working place. It analyzes various effects of violence on refugee, examine the coping mechanisms as well as interventions by different stakeholders. It examines the existing policy that protect women at workplace and how such policy includes refugee women in South Africa; while identifying government and non governmental organizations' programs and methods to prevent violence abuses facing by refugee in the professional environment; and where applicable their functioning, effectiveness, and applicability. In nature, this is a qualitative study. Snowball sampling methods were useful in the selection of participants. 15 refugee women from the Democratic Republic of Congo, Zimbabwe, as well as Burundi took part in the study. Private face- to face interviews were concluded with 15 women volunteers among the study participants and 3, leaders of humanitarian organizations from which the refugees were selected and which help women refugees, to cope with this scourge The findings showed that gender-work violence suffered by African's refugee women is dominant in the workplace inside Durban. The results also revealed that gender-based violence facing by female refugees in workplace possesses negative impacts. Examining coping mechanisms adopted by refugee women, the findings have shown a range of strategies adopted by refugee women. They all however seemed less effective in dealing with the growing level of gender based violence at workplace. Exploring an existing policy that protects women in the workplace and how this policy includes women refugees in South Africa, the results showed that the South African policy regarding the protection of women refugee in the workplace is not effective. It does not protect the refugee woman in her workplace. This is why refugee women turn to humanitarian organizations. These organizations have already put in place certain methods and programs to assist refugee women to prevent them from being exposed to violence in the workplace.
Conflict transformation and peace study in contemporary society: a case study of the relationship between African Foreign Nationals and local citizens in the city of Durban”.
(2021) Katabadi, Bibi Nathalie.; Johnson, Belinda.
The phenomenon of migration is not new in Africa. It has, however, not remained static and unchanging both in its form and dynamics over time. It has responded to and has been affected by changing social, economic, political and ecological conditions and processes. Africa’s recent history has been that of a series of rapid changes in all these aspects. However, some observers have described Africa as a “continent perpetually on the move” Hence, people of Africa are perpetually on the move perhaps more so than other regions in the world. Significantly, the movements are both intra-and inter-continental migrations. Nonetheless, the context of conflict includes the society in conflict and the wider international and regional level. Within the society, crucial background aspects are culture, governance arrangements, institutions, social roles, norms, the rules and codes in place in society, and its path of development. As globalisation proceeds, local conflicts are inevitably influenced by wider economic and political forces. These have tended to strengthen trade investment and technological networks in some areas of the world, but also to marginalise other areas such as Africa and the former Soviet Union. This study aim is to conduct a research project on the relationship between African foreign nationals and local citizens in the city of Durban to explore their perceptions of causes of xenophobia, and possible strategies for dealing with this type of behaviour.
Assessing the inclusion of youth and women in, and its impact on, the implementation of the Africa union post-conflict reconstruction and development initiatives in Monrovia; Liberia.
(2021) Gcabashe, Rachel Nontobeko.; Cele, Nokuthula.
The conflict in Liberia had an enormous impact on the country's social, political, and economic landscapes, affecting especially women and youth. Studies highlight the youth’s and women's role in peace building and post-conflict reconstruction processes of society as a cross-cutting issue crucial to sustainable peace. Therefore, this study investigated the inclusion of youth and women in, and its impact on, the implementation of African Union’s (AU’s) Post Conflict Reconstruction and Development (PCRD) policy in Monrovia, Liberia. The study's main goals were to contextualise the Liberian conflict, analyse the AU PCRD Framework, identify the contributions made by youth and women in implementing PCRD initiatives in Monrovia, and identify the challenges faced by both youth and women in Monrovia, as well as how these challenges influence their participation in PCRD initiatives and their implementation. While there are abundant documents, reports, and studies that focus on the conflict in African countries, particularly in Liberia, there is a research gap regarding the inclusion of youth and women in, and its impact on, the implementation of the AU PCRD initiatives. Based on various experiences gained thus far in managing peace processes on the continent, the AU crafted the PCRD Policy Framework. The Policy Framework was developed, mindful that each conflict is unique, as a guide to consolidate peace processes, as a conflict prevention measure, and as a mechanism to promote sustainable development. Using the mixed research method of quantitative and qualitative research designs, the study examined the extent to which the youth and women have been actively participating in the implementation of PCRD programmes in Liberia. Drawing from data collected, the study established that the participation of the youth and women in peace building processes and the conceptualisation and implementation of PCRD initiatives is critical in addressing physical, cultural, and structural violence, and in building post-conflict societies. However, as research findings suggest, there is no evidence of women and youth's effective participation and representation in crucial decision-making structures, and in the implementation of PCRD initiatives. Hence, women and youth remain underrepresented and overlooked. This study thus concludes that it is essential that youth and women become part of the PCRD processes at all levels and dimensions as stakeholders who are directly affected by the civil war. Their involvement can strengthen local peacebuilding institutions and re-affirm the value of inclusive stakeholder participation.
Gender-based violence against men during armed conflict - a case study of the Sierra Leone Civil War (1991-2002).
Langa, Philile.; Maart, Rozena Eliza.
No Abstract available.
Assessing the viability of humanitarian intervention as the shield for human rights: Case studies of Kosovo, Libya, and Iraq.
(2018) Tutu, Owethu Johnson.; Dlamini, Siyabonga Innocent.
On one hand, the end of the Cold War hatched new forms of wars and conflicts. On the other, oppressive regimes intensified their unromantic treatment towards their citizens, in so doing, misusing their sovereignty as the curtain behind which they hide their nefarious actions. It is through those wars and malicious actions by certain regimes that human rights are gravely violated. In an attempt to end those human rights violations, the international community through the United Nations Security Council employs humanitarian military intervention. However, there are heavy criticisms levelled against the effectiveness of humanitarian intervention as the shield for human rights. Moreover, the international community is divided into two, as those with the military and economic capacity to intervene deem humanitarian intervention as an effective mechanism to bring about an end to human rights violations and ultimately human suffering. However, on the other hand, weak states contradict that view, advancing the position that humanitarian intervention is just a Trojan horse through which powerful states pursue their nefarious agendas in weak countries. This research aims to assess the viability of humanitarian intervention as the shield for human rights. In assessing that effectiveness, it acknowledges the fact that, humanitarian intervention entails the employment of force. Therefore, argues that the employment of force is synonymous to war, as it involves life taking risks inconsequential of its magnanimity. However, this study does not ignore the fact that human rights are being violated virtually on a daily basis and therefore, there is a compelling need for the mechanism through which human rights ought to be shielded and humanitarian intervention is that mechanism in current international politics. But factors that influence humanitarian intervention as the shield for human rights tend to determine the effectiveness of the intervention in protecting the rights of the vulnerable populations. This assessment is pursued through examining case studies where intervention for humanitarian reasons was exercised. Moreover, factors that influence the carrying out of humanitarian military intervention are also examined. Among these factors, national interest takes priority, as it influences intervention in the most negative fashion and leads to more human rights violations. Eventually, this study closes by offering possible recommendations on how humanitarian intervention as the tool to shield human rights can be improved.
The role of international community in the protection of civil rights and interests in conflict zones: the case of the Darfur region in Sudan (2003-2016)
(2018) Jori, Denford.; Dlamini, Siyabonga Innocent.
This is a study of conflict resolution in the Darfur region of Sudan that underpins the gross human rights violations by both the government forces and militia groups.The Darfur conflict constitute one of the known 21st century civil wars which resulted in the deaths and displacements of mainly the civilian population. In light of these human rights violations by the parties to the conflict, the government of Sudan was roundly condemned by the international community for its failure to protect civilians. The researcher will use the qualitative research method while the Constructivism theory will be used as the theoratical framework in conducting the research. An incisive finding by the research is that both the government forces and the rebel groups (militia) participated in the gross human rights violations during the conflict. On the international intervention, the study found that there is an element of selectivity by superpowers regarding their attention to humanitarian crisis. Little attention was given to the Darfur crisis than both in Cambodia and Afghanistan. The researcher in this context recommends that in order for a lasting peace and stability to be attained in the Darfur, both parties to the conflict have to engage and come up with a comprehensive peace agreement which has to be signed by all.The African Union is recommended to take a leading role in bringing the parties to the negotiation table.
An exploration of the holistic development and wellbeing of children at Clouds of Hope home KwaSani Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal.
(2018) Andam, Nche Hostencia.; Dlamini, Siyabonga Innocent.; Tschudin, Alain Jean-Paul Charles.
Children wellbeing is strongly linked to their holistic development and both dependent to the parental support and environmental as well as socioeconomic situation of the country. South Africa is one of the third world countries where the number of orphaned children is growing following HIV/AIDS and the socioeconomic situation of the country is deteriorating. This study explored factors that promote the holistic development of children in Clouds of Hope Home (CHH) taking into consideration the quality of their diets, cognitive growth, psychosocial wellness and the children’s participatory contribution in their wellbeing. It used a case study of the CHH on the basis that the centre hosts children who formed part of the study. A qualitative methodology was adopted in this study and data were collected through 33 in-depth interviews and one focus group discussion. Data for the study was collected at the CHH in KwaSane municipality. Data was analyzed qualitatively using thematic analysis. Findings in this research study suggested that children at the CHH are predominantly orphans and vulnerable. They face the day to day challenges of dealing with their situation both at school and at the centre. Their responses suggest that they are bullied at school and others face stigma and discrimination due to their HIV status that they live with. As reported during the focus group discussions, the children at CHH, indicated the need to be taken care of by a biological parent instead of a caregiver at the CHH, which unfortunately was impossible as many of the children are dominantly orphans. We conclude that rural South Africa continues to struggle with situations of orphans and vulnerable children. While their number is on increase, this research finding suggested that not much is being done for them to face their future if they failed to complete their studies. Moreover, the children in CHH had limited choices as to where to further their studies as they depended most on what the centre management could only afford.
Religion, conflict and peacebuilding in Africa: the role of the church in the peacebuilding process in the Democratic Republic of Congo from 2001-2006.
(2017) Oladosu, Steve Tai.; Mtshali, Khondlo Phillip Thabo.; Gwala, Sbusisiwe Philile.
This study examines the roles of the Church and its models of peace effort in the DRC from 2001 to 2016. The main objective is to identify and analyze the impact of the role of the church on the conflict; to evaluate the success of the Church in Peacebuilding from 2001-2016; to examine the key challenges and opportunities facing the Churches in its intervention, and; to identify how the church could maximize its peacebuilding potential in the DRC. Thus, the following questions were set forth to guide the research: 1) what role has the church played in DRC conflict from 2001 to 2016? 2) What successes has the church achieved? 3) What obstacles has the Church faced in its peace efforts? 4) How can the church deal with these obstacles to maximize its potential of achieving a sustainable peace in the DRC? Therefore, the qualitative approach is found appropriate for these research questions, because it grants valuable understanding of the issues through a careful examination of historical data. So, the non-empirical study makes use of secondary sources of data collection.Also, John Paul Lederach’s “peacebuilding pyramid” is opted for as the conceptual framework. The framework focus on reconciliation and on reconstruction of broken down relationships: a process that recognizes that conflicts are essentially types of relationships and prioritizes on addressing its psychological components. Therefore, it was used to address such questions as, should peace be built from the top down, or from the bottom up? What parts should the various actors play? Are there spaces for the church at all the three levels? However, the key study finding was that the Church in the DRC is large, strong, and significant. With these, and its predictable solidarity with the grassroots populace, have the capacity to transform conflict situation in the DRC. The study also reveals that the church in the DRC are engaged in a kind of reactive approach to peace work which focuses on the immediate conflict, with no long-term peace process to address the root cause, and to deal with those policies and structures that sustains conflicts. The researcher thus maintains that the Church in the DRC needs a review of their models of engagement in conflict transformation and peacebuilding.
The impact of the socio-political context on peace education: experiences from three selected universities in Zimbabwe.
(2015) Mashingaidze, Sikhululekile.; Ndlovu, Joram.
In this dissertation, I focus on the impact of the socio-political context on the experiences of the teaching and learning of peace at Africa University (AU), the National University of Science and Technology (NUST) and the Midlands State University (MSU). The study is entrenched within the Systems and Marxist theories of education as well as the transformational conflict theory. My central argument is that peace education is currently operating within constrained environment within which it is viewed with suspicion as a western inspired regime change agenda. This is evident in the onslaught that it faces from state aligned media. Secondly, the potential effectiveness of peace education is also hindered by partisan political tampering that has kept its content and pedagogical approaches on a leash to ensure that it steers clear of controversial yet pertinent issues. Due to this evident lack of political will students argue that current peace education initiatives are not only irrelevant but designed to mollify them so they do not question the injustices of their lived realities. In my study I underscore that the sanctioning of peace education in Zimbabwean universities remains cosmetic in the absence of political will to address the structural socio-political imbalances that currently militate against the values of plurality, tolerance, truth telling, forgiveness and reconciliation. This dissertation mainly draws on former and current students, lecturers and retired educationists‟ subjective interpretations of their teaching, learning and existential experiences.
Vertical integration peacebuilding in transforming African conflicts : peace mechanisms in the Democratic Republic of Congo, South Sudan and Somalia.
(2016) Zvaita, Gilbert Tinashe.; Francis, Suzanne.
Different parts of the African continent have been subject to conflict. Over the years, both state and non-state actors to provide lasting solutions to peace have embarked on various peacebuilding initiatives. Despite different programs, projects, and peace agreements that have been signed and established. It however, remains a challenge in most post-conflict countries to secure lasting peace. In most cases, there has been relapse of conflict within a period of 5 years after the peace accord, or within a decade of peace programs. This research approaches the African conflict problem from a theoretical standpoint, to challenge the dominance of liberal concepts of peace that remain an impasse in grounding necessary structures that may be of significant help to build sustainable peace. Vertical integration peacebuilding is engaged as a hybrid peace theory in analyzing the various peacebuilding procedures that have been applied over the years by international organizations, state actors and regional actors in the continent. DRC, Somalia and South Sudan are the relevant case studies. The main argument is not to dismiss the progress achieved so far. Rather it seeks to engage on a corrective analysis of the strategic impasses that have been sabotaging the transformation processes that can be of much significance in dealing with the conflict problems. There have been repetitive liberal/top-down/paternalistic peacebuilding approaches in the past two or more decades in Africa’s conflict countries with little or no significant changes in the transformation of peace. Therefore, vertical integration as a peacebuilding approach is engaged to expose the weaknesses of the dominant liberal peace mechanisms that guides various institutions of peace in Africa. The researcher outlines the importance of developing more local peace ownership programs and establishing a legitimate support for peacebuilding programs from below as an effective and alternative way of ushering in sustainable peacebuilding programs. Henceforth, sector security reform, and disarmament, demobilization and reintegration programs, which are particular to peacebuilding, can therefore gain more local support if they are designed through the perspectives of the local communities.
Human trafficking and its ramifications : the nexus between conflict and trafficking in persons: a case study of the union of Burma.
(2015) Bunjira, Nyasha Carol.; Mngomezulu, Bhekithemba Richard.
Human trafficking often affects people who are marginalised, disadvantaged, isolated, unprotected or in desperate situations. Disempowerment, social and political exclusion and economic vulnerability are results of policies and practices that marginalize groups of people and make them particularly vulnerable to being trafficked. Natural disasters, conflict and political turmoil weaken already tenuous protection measures. However, individuals are vulnerable to being trafficked not only because of conditions in their countries of origin. The allure of opportunity, the relentless demand for cheap and inexpensive goods and services and the expectation of reliable income also play a role in driving people into potentially risky situations where they can be exposed to human trafficking and exploitation. Conflict creates a unique set of vulnerability factors that must be addressed in any discussion on the issue of human trafficking in conflict situations. The disruption of community life, along with its protective framework, and the resulting displacement create extreme vulnerability to human trafficking and exploitation. Trafficking in conflict situations is a subject on which little research has been done, and which is seldom addressed in counter-trafficking initiatives. Significantly, the proliferation of conflicts around the world, from the Middle East, South East Asia to Africa, which largely affect civilians and result in unprecedented numbers of displaced people and refugees, thus, human trafficking and exploitation would appear as unintended consequences. In conflict settings such as the Union of Burma1, human trafficking flourishes. Therefore, failure to realise and address these issues can result in the permanent entrenchment of this phenomenon. Accordingly, this research aims to build insights into the nexus between conflict and human trafficking to stakeholders involved in counter-trafficking, so that they can put forward and develop solutions best suited to the conditions in conflict situations. The study explores the relationship between armed conflict and human trafficking using the Union of Burma as a case study.
Coaching as an empowerment tool for financial advisors to transform the South African life assurance industry.
(2014) Nyamunda, John.; Tschudin, Alain Jean-Paul Charles.
Life assurance remains one of the most recognised effective mitigating tool to reduce risks faced in people’s daily lives (Naidoo, 2010). This is effectively done through a financial planning process conducted by financial advisors. In South Africa, 60% of financial advisors at present are white males 50 years and older, while only 10% of financial advisors are mostly black advisors under 30 years of age (The Institute of Practice Management, 2010). This is despite the fact that in the general population white people form only 8.9% of South African population (Department of Labour, 2013). Employment transformation in general remains slow and as of 2012, 72.6% of top managerial positions were occupied by white people (Department of Labour, 2013). This is despite the efforts being made by financial services companies through the Financial Services Charter, where they are paying 1.5% of payroll (in addition to the skills development levy) for training. Training provided by life assurance companies to Financial Advisors is mostly classroom style which focuses on the sales cycle, the law and product information. It does not take into account differences in financial advisor backgrounds. Using the current training methods being employed, more financial advisors from ‘suburb’ schools (mostly white) will have better outcomes compared to financial advisors from ‘township’ schools (mostly black) (Equal Education, 2011). This means transformation, as desired by life houses remains unachieved. Inequality that can be aligned with cultural, race, religious identity or ethnicity (horizontal inequality) is more likely to lead to conflict (Kanbur, 2007 & Steward, 2005). The majority of sales people reach their full potential through effective training and sales coaching (Rich, 1998, p. 52). Sales coaching of financial advisors is done haphazardly by life assurance companies as great emphasis is put on classroom based training. This thesis argues that life assurance companies should include coaching as a fundamental part of their training programme, if they want to achieve transformation. I suggest using a Gestalt approach to coaching of financial advisors. In this thesis, the conflict race theory (CRT) is used to have an in-depth understanding of conflict transformation in the South African life assurance sector.
The Rwandan process of unity and reconciliation : its potential for building sustainable peace.
(2003) Mugabe, Aggee M. Shyaka.; Harris, Geoffrey Thomas.
This study is an evaluation of the Rwandan unity and reconciliation process and was undertaken to assess whether it possesses the potential for building sustainable peace in the country. The study used an analytical method to measure the key activities of the National Unity and Reconciliation Commission, the national body that oversees the efforts aimed at promoting unity and reconciliation among Rwandans. Before properly analysing the process, the study outlined a number of conditions that are necessary for true reconciliation and sustainable peace to be achieved. The analysis allowed a comparison of these conditions to the context in which the unity and reconciliation process is being conducted in Rwanda. This required the exploration of the entire situation at political, economic and social levels. Particular attention has been paid to the situation after the 1994 genocide to examine developments from then until to the present. It became evident during the study that decisive structural changes have been undertaken to prepare a supportive environment for unity, reconciliation and peace. Appropriate structures' reform occurs in the domains of good governance, economic planning and justice. It also became evident, however, that some important obstacles to unity and peace persist, specifically poverty, reluctance to cooperate with 'Gacaca' traditional courts, corruption and opportunistic political leaders. Appropriate measures have to be taken in addressing these issues for sustainable peace to be a new way of life for all Rwandans. Generally, the study showed that the process of unity and reconciliation in Rwanda has the potential to succeed since high governing leaders are engaged to restore unity and reconciliation in the country. Political will, the study revea led, is an essential ingredient for sustainable peace. The study also listed a number of encouraging results of the process and proposed some measures to strengthen unity, reconciliation and peace.
Women in peace-building: perspectives of women in Durban.
(2004) Vardhan, Desiree.; Sathiparsad, Reshma.
For centuries, women's opinion on matters of peace building were largely ignored. The importance of women's participation in peacebuilding cannot be better expressed than in the United Nations Security Council's Resolution 1325 of 2000. This resolution, which was unanimously adopted by the council, calls for the broad participation of women in peace buildlng and post conflict reconstruction. The primary data aspect of this study was conducted with a diverse group of women based in Durban . Ten women where interviewed with the aim of gathering data about their experiences of peace buildlng and their vision of peace. They viewed their approaches as often distinct from men and believed that the significance of their peace buildlng work is not adequately recognized. What these ten women have in common is courage, tenacity and a long term vision of a world in peace. They view the attainment of peace and a return to normality as everyone's ' responsibility and everyone's concern. Women, men, politicians and religious and civic organizations should be seen as working toqether in buildlng peace.
Educating for peace at pre-school: a case study of Khulanathi educare centre.
(2003) Umurerwa, Blandine.; Harris, Geoffrey Thomas.
Pre-schools, as the entry point to formal education are increasingly expected to play an invaluable role in the promotion of peace. As such, this study sets out to investigate the nature and extent to which one pre-school, namely Khulqnathi Educare Gentre in Pietermaritzburg (KEG), adheres to the 'peaceful schools' model with respect to its organization, curriculum, learning methods and the handling of conflict. The research approach taken in this study was qualitative and exploratory, relying on self-administered questionnaires, reviewing literature and documentary analysis. The researcher also spent some time at the school to observe day-to-day activities. Parents and teachers constituted the study's respondents. The study reveals an innovative approach to teaching at KEG in which peace education is treated as an integral part of the entire learning and teaching processes. This innovation gets impetus from the school's constitution, which endorses peace education. Peace values are promoted through the curriculum in general, and in particular, the teaching and learning methods and in the school's approaches to handling conflict. Peace education does not stand out as an explicit goal. Rather, it is an integral compc;ment of the four cornerstones of the KEG's learning and teaching processes. Approaches to resolving conflict through dialogue at the school further demonstrate the school's adherence to the peaceful school model. A close working relationship between the school staff and parents ensures that children are exposed to peace values both at home and at school. In summary, the questionnaires, observations and the school documents lead to the conclusion that KEG is closely conforms to the peaceful school model. The study also offers some general insights on peace education in pre-schools and some recommendations specifically meant for Khulanthi Educare's situation.
Traditional approaches to peacemaking and conflict resolution : the case of Wunlit, South Sudan.
(2003) Kundu, Mariam Ayoti.; Sathiparsad, Reshma.
This study explores how traditional conflict resolution mechanisms were used to transform the conflict between the Dinka and Nuer communities in Wunlit, south Sudan in 1999. Various people perceived, experienced and played different roles in the process. Through story telling and the sacrifice of a white bull, the two communities entered a covenant which still holds four years later. The merger of previously antagonistic liberation movements with strong Dinka and Nuer constituencies, respectively, two years after Wunlit is seen by some as a dividend of Wunlit. People-centred peacemaking processes can be credited for contributing to enduring peace.
Experiences and attitudes of children towards corporal punishment.
(2009) Ntshingila, Sylvia Ntombifuthi.; Sathiparsad, Reshma.
The overall objective of the study is to explore with young people their attitudes and experiences of corporal punishment. The specific aims are: i) To explore children’s experiences of corporal punishment ii) To ascertain children’s attitudes towards corporal punishment iii) To explore alternatives that children suggest to corporal punishment as a form of discipline In this study I conducted in-depth interviews with eighteen early adolescents between ages of 10 to 15 year olds from a community in Imbali, KwaZulu Natal, and Pietermaritzburg. It was intentional to explicitly work with children from a similar black township of Zulu background. Hence the only representation I sought to address in this group was gender and the group was equally represented with 9 boys and 9 girls using a snowball sampling. The prominent findings of the study which confirm some of the previous studies of particularly Dawes et el (2004 and 2005); Maree and Cherian (2004); and De Wet (2009): Mothers are the prominent disciplinarians in the home. Adults use and support corporal punishment as tool to discipline. Criminalising corporal punishment has not been effective. Corporal punishment has worked as a temporary deterrent. Children still think corporal punishment is the only way to prevent children from being spoiled this is despite the fact that they think of it as painful. Boys tend to be more aggressive after the punishment. Girls are more fearful prior to the punishment. Children prefer being punished at home rather than at school. Collective punishment by teachers in schools was seen as unfair. Most preferred alternative to physical punishment was withholding of privileges like pocket money.
Manipulation of ethnic identity during the colonial reform of administration (1926-1931) and conflict in Rwanda.
(2004) Binenwa, Jean Bosco N.; Balinda, Rwigamba.
This study aimed to highlight factors used by the Belgian authorities to divide Rwandans during the Colonial Reform Process between 1926 and 1931. More specially, it is aimed at identifying how they mobilised Hutu, Tutsi and Twa social classes and transformed the ethnic identities. To achieve this goal, unstructured interviews and a questionnaire were used. In addition, several data analyses were also used to measure and decipher the attitudes of both the interview and survey's respondents. The results indicated the conflict started when the Belgian colonisers implemented indirect rules that highlighted a selected elite from the Tutsi Tribe. This group benefited from social and economic advantages which totally excluded the Hutu and Twa tribes. With the reform, the previous traditional structure was destroyed, and with the new administration only Tutsi chiefs remained whereas Hutu and Twa chiefs were rendered obsolete. Tutsi were seen as born chiefs. On the contrary, they judged the Hutu good for manual work and exploited them as a labour force. For a deep acceptance of this new order, colonisers reinforced ethnic policies with ideological assumptions which defined Tutsi as the superior race. In this regard, several ethnologists and anthropologists attempted to prove the Hamitic origin of the Tutsi, allowing Belgians to use the "Hamitic Myth", which assumed that the Tutsi was the only group able to understand development and to command at the request of the colonial state. In addition, Belgians decided to issue identity cards which clearly stated the bearer's tribal origin. This undoubtedly influenced people to develop ethnic feelings and disposed the most fiercely rival groups (Hutu and Tutsi) to ethnic competition that led to outbreaks of violence in 1959 when Belgians shifted their allegiance from Tutsi to Hutu as the fomer was asking for independence. The scarcity of environmental resources increased the desire to monopolise control of the country as this was continually perceived as only means of access to resources. This led Rwandan politicians to use ethnicity as a way to secure power. Consequently, a culture of ethnic violence became entrenched. This culminated in genocide from April to July 1994.

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